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Ruwa da tsabtace muhalli a yankin Sahara na Afirka

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Ruwa da tsabtace muhalli a yankin Sahara na Afirka
aspect in a geographic region (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Fuskarwater supply and sanitation (en) Fassara
A kasashe da yawa a Afirka, gwangwani da ake amfani da su don jigilar ruwa da adana ruwa zaɓi ne mai kyau don adanawa mai aminci

Kodayake samun damar samar da ruwa da tsabta a yankin Sahara na Afirka yana ci gaba da ingantawa a cikin shekaru ashirin da suka gabata, yankin har yanzu yana bayan duk sauran yankuna masu tasowa. Samun damar ingantaccen samar da ruwa ya karu daga 49% a 1990 zuwa 68% a 2015, [1] yayin da samun damar ingantaccen tsabtace muhalli ya karu daga 28% zuwa 31% a wannan lokacin. Afirka ta kudu da Sahara ba ta cika Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990-2015) na rage rabin yawan jama'a ba tare da samun damar samun ruwan sha mai kyau da tsabta tsakanin 1990 da 2015. Har yanzu akwai manyan bambance-bambance tsakanin kasashen Afirka da ke kudu da Sahara, da kuma tsakanin birane da yankunan karkara.

Yawancin lokaci, ana ba da ruwa ta hanyar masu amfani a cikin birane da ƙananan hukumomi ko ƙungiyoyin al'umma a yankunan karkara. Cibiyoyin sadarwar ruwa ba na kowa ba ne kuma Maganin ruwa mai guba ba na kowa bane. Tsabtacewar sau da yawa tana cikin nau'ikan bayan gida ko bayan gidaje. Kashi 70% na saka hannun jari a samar da ruwa da tsabta a yankin Sahara na Afirka ana samun kudi a ciki kuma kashi 30% ne kawai ake samun kudi daga waje (2001-2005 matsakaici). Yawancin kudaden cikin gida shine kudaden gida ($ 2.1bn), wanda shine da farko don tsabtace wuri kamar latrines. Kudin bangaren jama'a ($ 1.2bn) kusan daidai yake da kudade na waje (US $ 1.4bn). Gudummawar kudaden kasuwanci masu zaman kansu ba su da mahimmanci a dala miliyan 10 kawai.

Ma'adanai na ruwa

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Taswirar Afirka ta kudu da Sahara.

Ruwa na kasa

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Tushen jama'a (standpost) don ruwan sha a Soweto, Johannesburg, Afirka ta Kudu. Mayu 2005

Ruwa mai zurfi yana taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen kiyaye samar da ruwa da hanyoyin rayuwa a yankin Saharar Afirka musamman saboda yawan wadatarta, inganci mai girma, da kuma ikon da za a iya magance abubuwan da suka faru na fari da karuwar canjin yanayi.

Duk da haka akwai iyakantaccen tushe don samar da ruwa mai tsabta a Afirka, daya daga cikin binciken binciken da aka gudanar a 2007 ya nuna cewa sama da kashi 40% na 'yan Afirka suna amfani da ruwan kasa a matsayin babban tushen ruwan sha, musamman a kasashen Arewa da Kudancin Afirka.[2][3][4]

Ruwa mai bututu har yanzu shine mafi mahimmancin tushen ruwan sha (39%) a cikin birane, duk da haka ramuka suna zama mafi mahimmanci (24%). [2] WHO (2006) ta bayyana cewa, a shekara ta 2004, kashi 16% ne kawai na mutanen da ke yankin Sahara na samun damar samun ruwan sha ta hanyar haɗin gida (tambayar cikin gida ko famfo a cikin yadi). Ko da lokacin da akwai ruwa a cikin waɗannan wurare, akwai rashin samun ruwa mai sauƙi, saboda akwai haɗarin gurɓata saboda dalilai da yawa. Abubuwa irin su rashin kulawa saboda iyakantaccen albarkatun kuɗi, gurɓataccen tsabtace jiki wani lokacin saboda iyakancewar albarkatun kudi. Lokacin da aka gina rijiyoyi kuma aka haɓaka wuraren tsabtace ruwa, wani lokacin ba a yin gwajin ingancin ruwa sau da yawa kamar yadda ya cancanta, da kuma rashin ilimi tsakanin mutanen da ke amfani da maɓuɓɓugar ruwa.[5]

Ruwan saman ƙasa

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Kogin Congo shi ne na biyu mafi girma a duniya, yana rufe fiye da kashi 12% na nahiyar Afirka

Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya (WHO) a 2015 ta ruwaito cewa kusan mutane miliyan 159 suna ɗebo ruwan saman ƙasa ba tare da tsaftacewa ba daga tafkuna, koguna da rafuka a duniya. Hanyoyin ruwan saman ƙasa a Afirka sau da yawa suna da gurbatawa. Abubuwa kamar zubar da shara, gurɓatar mai, masana’antu, da sauransu. Misali, a wani bincike da aka gudanar a Najeriya, an gano manyan gurɓatattun abubuwa a cikin ruwan da ke kewaye, ciki har da zubar da sinadarai na noma, sharan birane, da gurbatar masana’antu.[6] A wani bincike da aka gudanar a Madagascar, Uganda, da Rwanda, masu bincike sun gano cewa akwai manyan gurɓatattun abubuwa a cikin ruwan yankunan. Wadannan sun haɗa da E. coli, nitrates, da ƙarafa masu nauyi. Duk waɗannan gurɓatattun abubuwa sun haifar da damuwa game da tsaron ruwan da mutane ke amfani da shi.[7]

Tasirin sauyin yanayi

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Tasirin sauyin yanayi a kan zagayowar ruwa zai shafi samuwar ruwan da mutane ke amfani da shi a Afirka. Misali, za a sami sauye-sauye a tsarin ruwan sama, wato yawan ruwan da zai sauka da inda zai sauka.

Ana sa ran sauyin yanayi zai ƙara matsin lamba kan samuwar ruwa a Afirka, duk da haka wannan tasirin zai kasance kaɗan idan aka kwatanta da abubuwa kamar yawan jama’a, bunƙasar birane, bunƙasar noma da sauyin amfani da ƙasa.[8] Duk da cewa abubuwa da dama za su shafi samuwar ruwa a Afirka, sauyin yanayi zai ƙara ƙarancin ruwa a Arewacin Afirka da Kudancin Afirka. A Arewacin Afirka, sauyin yanayi na iya zama sanadin kashi 22% na ƙarancin ruwa a yankin.[9] Sauyin yanayi da abubuwan tattalin arziki za su ƙara ƙarancin ruwa a Kudancin Afirka yayin da zafin jiki da sauyin ruwan sama ke rage gudun ruwan koguna.[10] Sauyin yanayi kuma zai haifar da ƙarin matsalolin yanayi kamar fari, wanda zai fi tsawo kuma ya fi yawan faruwa a Kudancin Afirka.[8]

A Gabashin Afirka, sauyin yanayi kan ruwan bai da tabbas, saboda samfurin yanayi ya nuna zai iya ƙaruwa ko raguwa. Ƙaruwa a zafin jiki na iya ƙara ƙonewar ruwa da rage kankara, wanda zai ƙara matsin lamba kan ruwan.[11] Duk da haka, ana sa ran ƙaruwa a ƙarfin ruwan sama wanda zai ƙara gudun ruwan koguna a yankin Kogin Victoria.[12]

Bambancin jinsi da ruwa

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A duk fadin Afirka ta ƙasa da Sahara, samun ruwan tsafta yana da ƙalubale, musamman ga mata, waɗanda su ne ke ɗaukar nauyin samo ruwa ga gidajensu. Wani bincike a karkarar Zimbabwe ya nuna cewa mata suna yin tafiya mai nisan kilomita 4 kowace rana don ɗebo ruwa.[13] A lokacin fari, waɗannan tafiyoyi suna ƙaruwa saboda ƙarancin ruwa. Fari kuma yana da alaƙa da tashin hankali a wuraren ɗebo ruwa, wanda ya fi shafar mata. Don rage haɗarin tafiya mai nisa da tashin hankali, an ba da shawarar a saka jari a cikin tsarin samar da ruwa kusa da gidaje.[13] Wani bincike a Ghana ya nuna cewa ƙarancin samun ruwa yana da alaƙa da raguwar lafiyar mata da ƙarancin lokacin hutu, saboda su ne ke ɗaukar nauyin samo ruwa. Binciken ya nuna cewa kowace ƙarin awa da aka kashe wajen ɗebo ruwa, yana rage yawan mata da ke jin lafiya.[14]

Samun dama

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Yanayin gaba ɗaya

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Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Samun ingantaccen ruwan sha da tsabtace muhalli, a ƙasashe 7 na Afirka ta ƙasa da Sahara, daga 1990 zuwa 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)

A Afirka ta ƙasa da Sahara samun damar ruwan sha da tsabtace muhalli ya inganta, amma yankin yana baya idan aka kwatanta da sauran yankuna masu tasowa: samun ruwan sha mai aminci ya ƙaru daga kashi 49% a 1990 zuwa 60% a 2008, yayin da samun tsabtace muhalli ya ƙaru daga kashi 28% zuwa 31% a wannan lokaci. Afirka ta ƙasa da Sahara ba ta cika burin Millennium Development Goals na rage rabin yawan jama’a da ba su da ruwan sha mai aminci da tsabtace muhalli tsakanin 1990 da 2015 ba.[15]

Wannan yanayin na ruwan sha da tsabtace muhalli yana da tasiri kai tsaye ga lafiya: mace-macen yara ƙasa da shekaru biyar sun ragu a duniya, amma Afirka ta ƙasa da Sahara ta nuna ci gaba mafi jinkiri.[16]

Manufofin da aka sa a ƙarƙashin Sustainable Development Goals a 2015 sun bambanta da Millennium Development Goals, inda aka raba rahoton ruwan sha da tsabtace muhalli daban-daban – wato, burin samun ruwan sha mai aminci da arha (burin 6.1) da kuma samun tsabtace muhalli da daidaito (burin 6.2).[17] Musamman, SDG6 ya mayar da hankali wajen tabbatar da samun ruwa da tsabtace muhalli ga kowa.[17] SDGs sun kuma haɗa da rahoton tsabtace jiki, wanda ba ya cikin MDGs. Samun wuraren tsabtace jiki ya kasance babban ƙalubale wajen cimma burin SDG, inda ya rage samun dama a SSA daga kashi 19.7% zuwa 4.4% (bayanan 2017).[17]

A 2020, kashi 65% na al’ummar duniya suna amfani da ruwan bututu (83% birane da 42% karkara).[18] Ruwan bututu yana ƙididdige a matsayin ingantaccen tushen ruwa.[19] A Afirka ta ƙasa da Sahara, kashi 35% ne kawai ke amfani da ruwan bututu (56% birane da 20% karkara). Samun ruwan sha mai aminci yana bambanta tsakanin manyan birane da ƙananan garuruwa.[18]

Dangane da WASH (ruwa, tsabtace muhalli da tsabtace jiki) a makarantu, bayanan 2019 sun nuna cewa “Afirka ta bayar da rahoton samun WASH a makarantu da kashi 44% na ruwan sha, 47% tsabtace muhalli da 26% tsabtace jiki”.[20] Yara a makarantu na karkara suna da ƙarancin samun WASH fiye da na birane.[20]

Ƙarancin samun ruwan tsafta yana shafar yara ta hanyoyi da dama. Wani bincike a Ghana ya nuna cewa ƙarancin ruwa yana da alaƙa da ƙarancin halartar makaranta. Haka kuma, ƙarancin ruwa da itacen girki yana da alaƙa da ƙarancin nasarar karatu, inda aka lura da tasiri a sakamakon gwaje-gwaje na lissafi da Turanci.[21]

Bambance-bambancen ƙasa

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Akwai manyan bambance-bambance tsakanin ƙasashen Afirka ta ƙasa da Sahara. Samun ruwan sha mai aminci ya bambanta daga kashi 38% a Ethiopia zuwa 91% a Afirka ta Kudu, yayin da samun tsabtace muhalli ya bambanta daga kashi 11% a Burkina Faso zuwa 77% a Afirka ta Kudu. A Ivory Coast, yanayin ya fi kyau, inda samun ruwan sha mai inganci ya kai kashi 82%.[22]

Bambance-bambancen birane da karkara

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File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Samun ruwan bututu a karkara da birane a Afirka da Asiya a 2015: Samun ruwan bututu a karkara na Afirka ya kasance ƙasa idan aka kwatanta da birane.[23]

A yankin Afirka ta ƙasa da Sahara, samun ruwan sha da tsabtace muhalli a birane ya ninka na karkara, duka ga ruwa (83% birane, 47% karkara) da tsabtace muhalli (44% vs. 24%). Duk da haka, yankunan karkara suna inganta da sauri, yayin da a birane, ci gaban tsarin ruwa da tsabtace muhalli ba ya iya bin saurin ƙaruwa na yawan jama’a.[15]

Fassarori daban-daban na samun dama

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Ya kamata a lura cewa ma’anar “samun dama” da “ingantacce” ba su da ma’ana guda. Ma’anar da WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program ke amfani da shi ba lallai ya dace da na sauran bincike ko manufofin ƙasa ba. Misali, gwamnatin Burkina Faso tana la’akari da abubuwa kamar lokacin jira da ingancin ruwa. A zahiri, kusan rabin gidajen Afirka ta ƙasa da Sahara da WHO/UNICEF ke cewa suna da “samun ingantaccen ruwan sha”, suna kashe fiye da rabin awa a rana wajen ɗebo ruwa.[15] Duk da cewa wannan asarar lokaci an ambata a rahoton WHO/UNICEF, ba ta shafi bambancin “ingantacce” da “ba ingantacce” ba.

Masu ruwa da tsaki na ƙasa a samar da ruwa da tsaftar muhalli

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Tun daga shekarun 1990 kusan dukkan ƙasashen Afirka sun fara sauya ikon siyasa daga cibiyar gwamnati zuwa hukumomin ƙananan yankuna: a Mali ya fara a 1993, a Habasha a 1995, a Ruwanda a 2002, a Burkina Faso a 2004, ... Tare da wannan tsarin sauya ikon, an aiwatar da gyare-gyare a fannin samar da ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. Tsarin hukumomin da suka fito daga wannan gyara ya bambanta a duk faɗin nahiyar. Ana iya yin bambance-bambance guda biyu.

Na farko shi ne tsakanin nauyin samar da ruwa da tsaftar muhalli a (i) birane da (ii) ƙauyuka. Yawancin gwamnatoci sun kafa kamfanonin gwamnati masu zaman kansu don samar da ruwa da tsaftar muhalli a birane. A ƙauyuka, nauyin yawanci yana hannun ƙananan hukumomi, ƙungiyoyin al’umma, ko kamfanonin masu zaman kansu na yankin. Aikin gwamnatin tarayya yawanci ya takaita ne wajen saita manufofi da ƙa’idojin ƙasa na samar da ruwa da tsaftar muhalli.

Na biyu shi ne, dangane da birane, akwai bambanci tsakanin ƙasashen da suka bar kamfani guda na ƙasa yana aiki a dukkan biranen ƙasar (yawanci ƙasashen Faransanci), da sauran ƙasashen (yawanci na Ingilishi) da suka ƙara sauya kamfanonin zuwa yankuna daban-daban.[24]

Birane

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A cikin shekaru ashirin da suka gabata, an ƙara ba da ikon gudanar da samar da ruwa da tsaftar muhalli na birane ga sabbin kamfanoni da aka ƙirƙira. A wasu lokuta waɗannan kamfanonin suna samar da wutar lantarki ma. Yawancin su an mayar da su kamfanoni masu zaman kansu, wato suna kwaikwayon kamfanoni masu zaman kansu wajen aiki da samun kuɗi. Duk da haka, suna bambanta sosai wajen matsayin doka da tsarin mallaka.

An yi fatan cewa, ta hanyar ƙirƙirar kamfanoni masu zaman kansu, za su iya zama masu dorewa a kasuwanci kuma su jawo jarin masu zaman kansu. Kusan rabin ƙasashen Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara sun gwada shiga masu zaman kansu a harkar kamfanoni tun daga farkon shekarun 1990, wanda Bankin Duniya ya tallafa sosai. Kwarewar da aka samu daga waɗannan kwangilolin masu zaman kansu ta bambanta. Wasu sun inganta aiki, amma kusan kashi ɗaya bisa uku sun ƙare kafin lokacin da aka tsara, kamar yadda ya faru a Dar es-Salaam a Tanzaniya.[24][25]

A yau kusan rabin kamfanonin suna mallakar gwamnati ne gaba ɗaya.[24] Misali a Senegal inda shiga masu zaman kansu ya yi nasara: haya da gudanar da hanyar ruwan ya ƙara inganci sosai kuma ya taimaka wajen ƙara samun ruwa. Senegal ta samu tallafin kuɗi daga waje don tsarin tace ruwa da rarrabawa, ciki har da rancen €64.5 miliyan daga Bankin Zuba Jari na Turai da kuma tallafin €5.55 miliyan daga Tarayyar Turai a 2023.[26][27][28] Wannan tallafin zai taimaka wajen samar da haɗin ruwa ga dubban jama’a a ƙasar. Baya ga Senegal, masu zaman kansu har yanzu suna da rawar takawa a Afirka ta Kudu, Kamaru, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana, Mozambique, Nijar da Uganda.[25] A Uganda da Burkina Faso kamfanonin gwamnati na ƙasa sun ƙarfafa ta hanyar haɗin gwiwa na ɗan lokaci da masu zaman kansu.

Kamfanonin ba sa iya kai ga dukkan gidaje a yankunansu. Adadin gidajen da ba su da haɗin ruwa ya bambanta daga sama da 80% a ƙasashe masu talauci kamar Uganda, Mozambique, Ruwanda, Nijeriya, da Madagascar, zuwa 21% a Namibiya da 12% a Afirka ta Kudu.

Wasu kamfanonin suna da alhakin samar da ruwa kawai, yayin da wasu kuma suna da alhakin tsaftar muhalli. Wasu kamfanonin ƙasa, musamman a ƙasashen Faransanci, suna samar da wutar lantarki ma. Wannan yana faruwa a Gabon, Mauritania da Ruwanda.

Ƙaruwar birane da yawan jama’a a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara sun ƙara wahalar da samar da ruwan bututu, musamman a yankunan marasa tsari da unguwanni. Bayanai daga UNICEF (2023)[29] sun nuna cewa duk da ƙaruwa a samun ruwan da aka inganta, adadin gidajen da ke da haɗin bututun ruwa yana raguwa. Yawancin gidaje suna dogara da madadin hanyoyin ruwa kamar rijiyoyi da masu sayar da ruwa.[30]

Ƙauyuka

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Nauyin samar da ruwa da tsaftar muhalli a ƙauyuka yawanci an sauya shi zuwa ƙananan hukumomi: su ne ke ƙayyade bukatun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli da kuma tsara ababen more rayuwa bisa dokokin ƙasa. Wasu gwamnatocin tarayya sun ƙirƙiri asusun zamantakewa na ƙasa (tare da tallafin masu bayar da gudummawa) wanda ƙananan hukumomi ke amfani da shi wajen gina ababen more rayuwa na ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. Duk da cewa ƙananan hukumomi yawanci suna mallakar ababen more rayuwa, ba su da ikon gudanar da su kai tsaye. Ana ba da wannan aiki ga ƙungiyoyin al’umma ko kamfanonin masu zaman kansu. Nazarin Bankin Duniya da wasu sun nuna bukatar ƙarin kulawa ga masu zaman kansu wajen gudanar da dukkan nau’o’in samar da ruwa a ƙauyuka.[31]

A Kenya, Tanzaniya da Afirka ta Kudu, kamfanoni suna ba da sabis ga mazauna ƙauyuka ma, duk da haka akwai tsarin daban-daban a ƙauyuka.[24] A Ruwanda, masu zaman kansu na yankin suna da yawa a ƙauyuka. Yawancin ƙasashe suna taka rawa wajen gina ababen more rayuwa (yawanci rijiyoyi). Wasu ƙasashe suna gwada hanyoyi daban-daban, kamar samar da ruwa da tsaftar muhalli ta kai, inda yawancin kuɗin saka jari na tsarin sauƙi ke fitowa daga masu amfani.[32] Wannan tsarin yana cikin manufofin ƙasa a Habasha kuma an aiwatar da shi a Zimbabwe a baya.[33]

Samar da kuɗin cikin gida yana tallafawa ruwan sha a ƙauyuka a Afirka amma yana fuskantar barazana daga yanayin ruwan sama da yadda ake amfani da ruwa.[34] Akwai shaidar cewa nazarin yanayin ruwan sama na iya taimaka wajen tsara kuɗin ruwan bututu a ƙauyuka ta hanyar ba da haske kan yadda ake buƙatar ruwa da kuma nuna inda sauyin yanayi zai iya ƙara dogaro da sabis mai dorewa.[34]

Masu zaman kansu masu ba da sabis na ruwa

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Ƙananan masu zaman kansu masu ba da sabis na ruwa (WSPs) suna da yawa a ƙasashe masu tasowa, har ma a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara.[35] Sau da yawa suna aiki ta hanyoyi marasa tsari kuma suna cike gibin da gwamnati ta bar wajen samar da ruwa. Misalan birane inda ƙananan WSPs ke da yawa sun haɗa da Nairobi (Kenya) da Dar es Salam (Tanzaniya).[35]

Akwai rukuni uku na masu zaman kansu masu ba da sabis na ruwa:[35]

  • "’Yan kasuwa masu siyar da ruwa da suka hako daga rijiyoyi sannan su sayar wa masu rarrabawa";
  • "’Yan kasuwa kai tsaye da ke siyar da ruwa daga kiosks, bututun tsaye ko haɗin gidaje ga masu amfani a wurin"; da
  • "Masu rarrabawa da ke ɗaukar ruwa daga ’yan kasuwa masu siyar da yawa ko kai tsaye zuwa ga masu amfani ta hanyar keken hannu, babur ko manyan motoci masu ɗaukar tanki".

Matsalolin da za su iya tasowa daga waɗannan masu ba da sabis na ruwa marasa tsari sun haɗa da ribar da za su iya samu da kuma ko wannan yana da "adalci". Farashin da ya fi kima na iya zama wata matsala. Haka kuma, akwai yiwuwar gurɓataccen ƙwayoyin cuta a cikin ruwan sha da suke siyarwa saboda amfani da kwantena gurɓatattu wajen adanawa.[35]

A gefe guda, tun daga shekarar 2017, JMP ta amince da ruwa da aka nannade ko ruwa da aka kawo a matsayin tushen ruwa da ya faɗa cikin rukuni na ingantaccen tushen ruwa.[35]

Ingancin sabis

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Misalin matsalolin ingancin ruwan sha a Kenya da Habasha: ginshiƙan bayanai da ke nuna adadin wallafe-wallafen da suka bayar da rahoton bayanai ga kowanne sigar sinadarin ruwan ƙasa, inda aka rarraba wallafe-wallafen bisa ga rahoton babu wurin ruwa da ya wuce ƙa’idar ƙasa ko rahoton aƙalla wurin ruwa ɗaya da ya wuce ƙa’ida. An zaɓi ƙa’idodin daga ƙa’idar ƙasar ko ƙa’idar lafiya ta WHO ko ƙa’idar Gabashin Afirka (EAS) don ruwan halitta mai sha.[36]

Alamar farko ta ingancin sabis na samar da ruwa ita ce ci gaba da samun sabis. Kamfanonin birane suna ba da sabis na ci gaba a Burkina Faso, Senegal da Afirka ta Kudu amma suna da yawan katsewa a Habasha da Zambiya. A yankunan karkara, ci gaba yana bayyana ta hanyar adadin wuraren ruwa da suka lalace ko kuma ta matsakaicin lokacin shekara ko wata da wurin ruwa bai yi amfani ba. Saboda yawan ƙaruwa na al’umma, matakin samar da ruwa bai iya biyan buƙata ba, wanda ke takaita samun ruwan sha mai tsabta.[37]

Alamar ta biyu ta inganci ita ce bin ƙa’idar ƙwayoyin cuta na ruwa. WHO/UNESCO kwanan nan sun haɓaka hanyar bincike mai sauri na ingancin ruwan sha (RADWQ). A matsakaici, a ƙasashe masu tasowa, bin ƙa’idar WHO yana kusan 90% ga ruwan bututu, kuma tsakanin 40% zuwa 70% ga sauran hanyoyin da aka inganta.[15] Babu bayanan ƙasa ko na yanki da aka wallafa tukuna.

Ƙananan gidaje masu ƙaramin kuɗi a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara suna fuskantar tasiri mai tsanani daga ingancin sabis saboda suna da ƙarancin samun hanyoyin ruwa tsabta. Wannan yana ƙara yiwuwar kamuwa da cututtukan da ruwa ke haifarwa saboda rashin ingancin sabis na wuraren ruwa da ke kewaye da waɗannan al’ummomi.[38] Al’ummomi da dama suna tilasta yin tafiya mai nisan mil don samun ruwan tsabta. Babu wani kai tsaye mafita ga wannan matsala saboda ta yadu sosai. Ana buƙatar aiki mai yawa kafin a iya samar da manyan mafita.[38]

Al’amuran Kuɗi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Farashi da dawo da kuɗi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Akwai ƙarancin farashi na sabis na ruwa da tsaftar muhalli a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara.[25][39] Sakamakon farko shi ne rashin isasshen dawo da kuɗi, wanda ke haifar da dogaro da tallafin ƙasashen waje da gwamnati, da kuma ƙarancin saka hannun jari. Na biyu, ƙarancin farashi ba ya da adalci a zamantakewa. Domin talakawa ba su da haɗin kai da cibiyoyin ruwa da magudanar ruwa, dole su nemi hanyoyin madadin, kuma a wasu lokuta suna biyan fiye da sau biyu na farashin hukuma. Saboda haka, talakawa suna shan wahala sau biyu: suna da ƙarancin samun ruwan sha da tsafta, kuma suna biyan kuɗi mai yawa.

Afirka ta Kudu ta yi fice wajen gabatar da sabis na asali kyauta ga kowa, ciki har da 6m3 na ruwa a kowane wata kyauta.

Farashin kusan $0.40 a kowanne m3 ana ɗauka ya isa ya rufe kuɗin aiki a mafi yawan ƙasashe masu tasowa, yayin da $1.00 zai rufe aiki, kulawa da gina ababen more rayuwa. Idan aka ɗauka cewa farashi yana iya ɗaukar nauyi muddin ba ya wuce 5% na kasafin kuɗin gida, Bankin Duniya ya ƙididdige cewa har ma a ƙasashe masu ƙarancin kuɗi a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara, har zuwa 40% na gidaje za su iya biyan cikakken farashi na $1 a kowanne m3.[40]

Inganci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Adadin ma’aikata a kowanne haɗin 1000 alama ce ta ingancin fasaha na kamfanonin ruwa. A Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara, matsakaici shi ne 6.[41] Inganci mafi girma ana gani a Afirka ta Kudu, inda kamfanoni hudu ke buƙatar ma’aikata 2.1–4.0 a kowanne haɗin 1000. Rwanda ta kai kololuwa da ma’aikata 38.6 a kowanne haɗin 1000.[41]

Wata alama ita ce kaso na ruwan da ba ya kawo kuɗi (ruwan da ya ɓace ko ba a auna shi ba). A tsarin da aka sarrafa da kyau, wannan adadi bai kamata ya wuce 25% ba. A 2005 an kiyasta ya kasance 20% a Senegal, 18% a Burkina Faso, 16% a Botswana, 14% a Windhoek a Namibiya da 12% a Drakenstein, Afirka ta Kudu. Wadannan kamfanoni sun cimma matakin da ya yi kama da na ƙasashen OECD. Amma a wasu ƙasashen Afirka matakin ruwan da ba ya kawo kuɗi yana da yawa sosai: misali, ya wuce 45% a Zambiya, sama da 60% a Maputo (Mozambik), 75% a Lindi (Tanzaniya) da 80% a Kaduna (Najeriya).[42] Ƙananan bayanai ne game da inganci a yankunan karkara.

Kuɗaɗen da ake kashewa

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A Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara, kuɗaɗen da ake kashewa a kan samar da ruwa da tsafta (saka hannun jari, aiki da kulawa) ya kai $7.6 biliyan a kowanne shekara, ko 1.19% na GDP na yankin. Wannan ya haɗa da $4.7 biliyan a kowanne shekara don saka hannun jari (matsakaicin 2001-2005). Bisa ga Bankin Duniya, jimillar kuɗaɗen da ake kashewa bai kai rabin abin da ake buƙata ba don cimma Manufofin Ci gaban Mileniyom a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara; hakan zai buƙaci fiye da $16.5 biliyan a kowanne shekara ko 2.6% na GDP na yankin.[25] Bankin Raya Afirka ya kiyasta cewa ana buƙatar $12 biliyan a kowanne shekara don rufe buƙatun Afirka a samar da ruwa da tsafta.[43]

Ana yawan kashe kuɗi ba bisa tsari ba. Bisa ga binciken Bankin Duniya, akwai babban gibi tsakanin kuɗaɗen da ake kashewa a yankunan karkara da birane, musamman manyan birane. Ana kashe kuɗin gwamnati inda ya fi sauƙin kashewa maimakon inda ake buƙata sosai. Tsafta tana samun ƙaramin kaso na kuɗin gwamnati: ƙarancin buƙatar tsafta daga gidaje yana sa ’yan siyasa ba su ganin tsafta a matsayin abin da zai kawo kuri’u, don haka suna karkatar da albarkatu zuwa sassa da ake ganin suna da ribar siyasa.[44]

Kuɗaɗen da ake samu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Daga cikin $4.7 biliyan na saka hannun jari a samar da ruwa da tsafta a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara, 70% ana samun shi daga cikin gida kuma 30% daga waje (matsakaicin 2001-2005). Mafi yawan kuɗin cikin gida shi ne kuɗin da gidaje suka kashe da kansu ($2.1bn), musamman don tsafta a wurin kamar bayan gida. Kuɗin gwamnati ($1.2bn) kusan ya kai daidai da kuɗin waje ($1.4bn). Gudummawar kuɗin kasuwanci na masu zaman kansu ba ta da yawa, $10 miliyan kawai.[45] Kason kuɗin waje yana bambanta sosai. A lokacin 2001-2005, tallafin ci gaba na hukuma ya rufe 71% na saka hannun jari a Benin, 68% a Tanzaniya, 63% a Kenya, 43% a DR Congo, 34% a Afirka ta Kudu, 13% a Najeriya kuma ƙasa da 1% a Côte d'Ivoire ko Botswana.[46] Bisa ga wani binciken Bankin Duniya na ƙasashe 5, a lokacin 2002-2008 tallafin ci gaba na hukuma ya rufe matsakaicin 62% na kuɗin gwamnati a kan ruwa da tsafta. Kason ya bambanta daga 83% a Sierra Leone zuwa 23% a Jamhuriyar Congo.[47]

Haɗin gwiwar waje

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A shekarar 2008, an samu $1.6 biliyan na tallafin ƙasashen waje da aka shigar cikin bangaren samar da ruwa da tsafta a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara, wanda ya kai 4% na dukkan tallafin ci gaba da aka bayar ga yankin. Wannan tallafin ya rufe 21% na dukkan kuɗaɗen da aka kashe a samar da ruwa da tsafta a yankin, kuma yawanci ya tafi ne wajen saka hannun jari a ababen more rayuwa. Aiki da kulawa ana ɗaukar nauyinsu ne daga gwamnatocin ƙasa da kudaden da masu amfani ke biya.[25]

Babban masu bayar da tallafi ga samar da ruwa da tsafta a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara sun haɗa da Bankin Duniya, cibiyoyin Tarayyar Turai (EU), Asusun Raya Afirka, da tallafin ƙasashen Jamus da Netherlands. Amurka, duk da kasancewarta babbar mai bayar da tallafi a Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara gaba ɗaya, tana taka rawa kaɗan a bangaren samar da ruwa da tsafta.

Tallafi ga SSA, a cikin miliyoyin US$ da % na jimla
Tushen Jimla WSS kawai
Bankin Duniya (IDA) 4 856 (12.3%) 378 (24.1%)
Cibiyoyin EU 5 056 (12.8%) 266 (16.6%)
Asusun Raya Afirka 1 780 (4.5%) 193 (12.0%)
Jamus 2 906 (7.4%) 171 (10.7%)
Netherlands 1 446 (3.7%) 137 (8.5%)
Amurka 6 875 (17.4%) 13 (0.8%)
Jimla 39 451 (100%) 1 603 (100%)

Musamman a ƙasashe masu ƙarancin kuɗi, kasancewar masu bayar da tallafi da kungiyoyin NGO na yammacin duniya da yawa yana kawo matsala ga daidaiton dabarun ƙasa, kamar yadda ake gani a Burkina Faso da Habasha. Tallafin ƙasashen waje yana zuwa a dukkan matakai: gwamnatin tarayya, asusun zamantakewa na ƙasa, kamfanonin ruwa, hukumomin ƙananan yankuna, da kungiyoyin NGO na cikin gida. Duk da cewa yawancin masu bayar da tallafi suna ƙoƙarin daidaita tallafinsu da tsarin ƙasa, hanyoyin aiwatarwa da mafita na fasaha sau da yawa suna bambanta.

Dabarun ingantawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Rahoton ƙarshe kan Ababen more rayuwa na Afirka[25] ya bayar da waɗannan shawarwari ga bangaren samar da ruwa da tsafta:

  • ci gaba da gyare-gyaren cibiyoyi: ingantattun hanyoyin cikin gida, ƙara ’yancin kai ga kamfanonin ruwa, da ingantaccen sa ido kan aiki
  • inganta yadda ake amfani da kuɗin gwamnati
  • gwada sabbin tsare-tsare don haɗa waɗanda ba su da haɗin kai, domin saka hannun jari a cibiyoyin bututun ruwa ba zai iya bin saurin girman birane ba
  • ƙirƙirar farashi masu adalci a zamantakewa amma da za su rufe ainihin kuɗin samar da ruwa da tsafta
  • inganta fahimtar hako ruwan ƙasa a yankunan birane, domin wannan shi ne tushen da ke ƙaruwa da sauri wajen samar da ruwan sha mai inganci
  • kasuwar rage hayakin carbon ta duniya na iya samar da hanyar samun kuɗi mai dorewa zuwa ga tushen ruwan tsabta a Afirka don tsarin da ya fi dorewa.[48]

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ "The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015" (PDF). United Nations.
  2. 1 2 "Water in Africa". African Studies Centre Leiden (in Turanci). 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  3. ↑ Xu, Yongxin; Seward, Paul; Gaye, Cheikh; Lin, Lixiang; Olago, Daniel O. (2019-05-01). "Preface: Groundwater in Sub-Saharan Africa". Hydrogeology Journal (in Turanci). 27 (3): 815–822. Bibcode:2019HydJ...27..815X. doi:10.1007/s10040-019-01977-2. ISSN 1435-0157. S2CID 149570011.
  4. ↑ MacDonald, A M; Bonsor, H C; Dochartaigh, B É Ó; Taylor, R G (2012-06-01). "Quantitative maps of groundwater resources in Africa". Environmental Research Letters. 7 (2). Bibcode:2012ERL.....7b4009M. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/7/2/024009. ISSN 1748-9326.
  5. ↑ "Water In Crisis - Spotlight Africa: Rural and Urban Issues". The Water Project (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  6. ↑ Isukuru, Efe Jeffery; Opha, James Odafe; Isaiah, Obaro Wilson; Orovwighose, Blessing; Emmanuel, Stephen Sunday (2024-12-01). "Nigeria's water crisis: Abundant water, polluted reality". Cleaner Water. 2. doi:10.1016/j.clwat.2024.100026. ISSN 2950-2632. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Szopińska, Małgorzata; Artichowicz, Wojciech; Szumińska, Danuta; Kasprowicz, Daniel; Polkowska, Żaneta; Fudala-Ksiazek, Sylwia; Luczkiewicz, Aneta (2024-10-15). "Drinking water safety evaluation in the selected sub-Saharan African countries: A case study of Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda". Science of the Total Environment. 947. Bibcode:2024ScTEn.94774496S. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174496. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 38969115 Check |pmid= value (help). Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  8. 1 2 "AR5 Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability — IPCC". Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  9. ↑ Droogers, P. (2012-09-03). "Water resources trends in Middle East and North Africa towards 2050". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 16 (9): 3101–3114. doi:10.5194/hess-16-3101-2012.
  10. ↑ Kusangaya, Samuel (2014-01-01). "Impacts of climate change on water resources in southern Africa: A review". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. 67-69: 47–54. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2013.09.014.
  11. ↑ "A Review of Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in East Africa". Transactions of the ASABE. 58 (6): 1493–1507. 2015-12-30. doi:10.13031/trans.58.10907.
  12. ↑ "Understanding future river flows in Lake Victoria Basin". Archived from the original on 2023-09-09. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  13. 1 2 Chigusiwa, Lloyd (February 2023). "Drought and social conflict in rural Zimbabwe: Does the burden fall on women and girls?". Review of Development Economics. 27 (1): 178–197. doi:10.1111/rode.12944.
  14. ↑ Lambon-Quayefio, Monica P. (January 2024). "Walking for water and fuelwood: Welfare implications for women and children in Ghana". Journal of International Development. 36 (1): 365–397. doi:10.1002/jid.3818.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "JMP".
  16. ↑ UN-WATER (2009) The United Nations World Water Development Report 3: Water in a Changing World. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.WWR 2009
  17. 1 2 3 Roche, Rachel; Bain, Robert; Cumming, Oliver (9 February 2017). "A long way to go – Estimates of combined water, sanitation and hygiene coverage for 25 sub-Saharan African countries". PLOS ONE. 12 (2). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171783. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5300760. PMID 28182796. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  18. 1 2 Grasham, Catherine Fallon (2022). "Equitable urban water security: beyond connections on premises". Environmental Research: Infrastructure and Sustainability. 2 (4): 045011. doi:10.1088/2634-4505/ac9c8d. ISSN 2634-4505.
  19. ↑ Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2022: special focus on gender. UNICEF & WHO, 2023
  20. 1 2 Hope, R. et al. (2021). Delivering safely-managed water to schools in Kenya. REACH Working Paper 8, University of Oxford, UK.
  21. ↑ Lambon-Quayefio, Monica P. (January 2024). "Walking for water and fuelwood: Welfare implications for women and children in Ghana". Journal of International Development. 36 (1): 365–397. doi:10.1002/jid.3818.
  22. ↑ "Improved water source (% of population with access)". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 20 May 2016.
  23. ↑ Hope, Rob (2020). "Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa". Oxford Review of Economic Policy. 36 (1): 171–190. doi:10.1093/oxrep/grz036.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic (AICD) (2008). Ebbing Water, Surging Deficits: Urban Water Supply in Sub-Saharan Africa. AICD Background Paper 12. Washington: World Bank.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic (AICD) (2010). Africa's Infrastructure: a Time for Transformation. Washington: World Bank.
  26. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":0".
  27. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":1".
  28. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name.
  29. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name.
  30. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name.
  31. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name.
  32. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name.
  33. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name.
  34. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ":8".
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 Ferdous Hoque, Sonia (2021). "Socio-spatial and seasonal dynamics of small, private water service providers in Khulna district, Bangladesh". International Journal of Water Resources Development (in Turanci). 39 (1): 89–112. doi:10.1080/07900627.2021.1951179. ISSN 0790-0627.
  36. ↑ Nowicki, Saskia; Birhanu, Behailu; Tanui, Florence; Sule, May N.; Charles, Katrina; Olago, Daniel; Kebede, Seifu (2023). "Water chemistry poses health risks as reliance on groundwater increases: A systematic review of hydrogeochemistry research from Ethiopia and Kenya". Science of the Total Environment (in Turanci). 904. Bibcode:2023ScTEn.90466929N. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166929. PMID 37689199 Check |pmid= value (help). Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  37. ↑ Beker, Bahar Adem; Kansal, Mitthan Lal (2023-01-05). "Complexities of the urban drinking water systems in Ethiopia and possible interventions for sustainability". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 26 (2): 4629–4659. doi:10.1007/s10668-022-02901-7. ISSN 1387-585X. PMC 9813897 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36624733 Check |pmid= value (help).
  38. 1 2 Baddianaah, Issah; Dongzagla, Alfred; Salifu, Sakibu Nakyeenaa (2024-12-31). You, Siming (ed.). "Navigating access to safe water by rural households in sub-Saharan Africa: Insights from north-western Ghana". Sustainable Environment (in Turanci). 10 (1). Bibcode:2024SusEn..1003803B. doi:10.1080/27658511.2024.2303803. ISSN 2765-8511. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  39. ↑ Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic (AICD) (2009). Provision of water to the poor in Africa. Experience with water standposts and the informal water sector. Working Paper 13. Washington: World Bank.
  40. ↑ Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic (AICD) (2008). Cost Recovery, Equity, and Efficiency in Water Tariffs: Evidence from African Utilities. AICD Working Paper 7. Washington: World Bank.
  41. 1 2 World Bank WSS survey database.
  42. ↑ Sudeshnha Ghosh Banerjee and Elvira Morella: Africa's Water and Sanitation Infrastructure. Access, Affordability, and Alternatives, World Bank, 2011.
  43. ↑ African Development Bank (2010). Financing Water & Sanitation Infrastructure for Economic Growth and Development. Technical Summary.
  44. ↑ "More, Better, or Different Spending? Trends in Public Expenditure Reviews for Water and Sanitation in Sub-Sahara Africa". World Bank. December 2011. Missing or empty |url= (help)
  45. ↑ Sudeshnha Ghosh Banerjee and Elvira Morella: Africa's Water and Sanitation Infrastructure. Access, Affordability, and Alternatives, World Bank, 2011.
  46. ↑ Sudeshnha Ghosh Banerjee and Elvira Morella: Africa's Water and Sanitation Infrastructure. Access, Affordability, and Alternatives, World Bank, 2011.
  47. ↑ "More, Better, or Different Spending? Trends in Public Expenditure Reviews for Water and Sanitation in Sub-Sahara Africa". World Bank. December 2011. Missing or empty |url= (help)
  48. ↑ "2050 Paris, potentially the Largest Clean Water Project owner. - 2050 Paris |" (in Turanci). 2023-12-17. Archived from the original on 2024-01-05. Retrieved 2024-01-05.
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