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Ruwan sha

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Ruwa
nutrient group (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na liquid water (en) Fassara da abinsha
SRGB color hex triplet (en) Fassara 1E90FF
Fabrication method (en) Fassara drinking water production (en) Fassara
Uses (en) Fassara potable water sampling (en) Fassara
Relates to sustainable development goal, target or indicator (en) Fassara Target 6.1 of the Sustainable Development Goals (en) Fassara
Hannun riga da non-drinking water (en) Fassara
Ruwan sha da ake samarwa ta hanyar famfo (ruwan famfo)

Ruwan sha ko tsatstsofaccen ruwan sha shine ruwa da ke da aminci don sha, ko dai lokacin da aka sha shi kai-tsaye a matsayin ruwa mai kwarara ko kuma aka yi amfani da shi ta fadin faka-fakai wajen tace abinci ko girki. Galibi ana samun sa ne ta hanyar famfuna, wanda a wannan yanayin kuma ana kiran sa ruwan famfo.

Adadin ruwan sha da ake buƙata don kiyaye kyakkyawar lafiya ya bambanta, kuma ya danganta da motsa jiki, shekaru, matsalolin da suka shafi lafiya, da kuma yanayin muhalli.[1][2] Ga waɗanda ke aiki a cikin yanayi mai zafi, ana iya buƙatar har zuwa lita 16 a rana.[1]

Kusan mutane biliyan biyu ne ke fama da ƙarancin ingantaccen ruwan sha.[3] Ruwan da ba shi da aminci yana iya ɗaukar cututtuka kuma shi ne babban dalilin mace-mace da rashin lafiya a duk duniya.[4] Ƙasashe masu tasowa ne suka fi fuskantar matsala daga gurbataccen ruwan sha.[5]

Hanyoyin samun ruwa

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Inshunan sayar da ruwan sha (vending machines) a Thailand. Ana sayar da lita ɗaya na ruwan sha (a cikin robar abokin ciniki kansa) akan kudin Baht 1.
Hoton zane na nau'ikan rijiyoyin ruwa
Sauƙaƙan hoton zane na tsarin rarraba ruwa

Ana samun ingantaccen ruwan sha a kusan dukkan yankunan duniya da mutane ke zaune, kodayake yana iya zama mai tsada, kuma mai yiwuwa hanyoyin samar da shi ba lallai ba ne su kasance masu dorewa a kowane lokaci. Hanyoyin da aka saba samun ruwan sha sun haɗa da idanun ruwa (marmaro), yankunan hyporheic, da rijiyoyin ƙarƙashin ƙasa (groundwater), ta hanyar tatar ruwan sama, ruwan saman ƙasa (daga koguna, rafuka, ƙanƙara), ko tace gishiri daga ruwan teku (desalination). Domin a shaki waɗannan hanyoyin ruwa cikin aminci, dole ne su sami isasshen tacewa (water treatment) sannan su cika ƙa'idodin ingancin ruwan sha.[6]

Wata hanya ta gwaji ita ce na'urorin samar da ruwa daga iska ta hanyar amfani da makamashin rana (solar-powered atmospheric water generators).[7]

Ruwan roba (bottled water) shima hanya ce ta samun ruwan sha, musamman lokacin da masu amfani da shi ke ganin cewa sauran hanyoyin ba su da aminci.[8] Kodayake yawancin ruwan roba ruwan famfo ne da aka tace aka kuma sa shi a gora, ana kuma amfani da ruwan marmaro a matsayin hanyoyin samun ruwan roba.[9][10]

Yawan Ruwa

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Amfani na gabaɗaya a gidaje

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A ƙasar Amurka, matsakaicin yawan ruwan da mutum ɗaya ke amfani da shi a gida shi ne 69.3 U.S. gallons (262 l; 57.7 imp gal) na ruwa a kowace rana.[11][12] Daga cikin wannan adadin, kashi 1% kaɗai na ruwan da hukumomin samar da ruwa na gwamnati ke bayarwa ake amfani da shi don sha da girki.[13] Sauran ayyukan da ake amfani da ruwa sun haɗa da (bisa tsarin raguwar yawa) bandaki, injin wankin kaya, wanka ta hanyar shawa, wankan baho, famfuna, da kuma malalar ruwa daga fasa-fasan dake jikin bututu.

Adadin daukacin albarkatun ruwa da za a iya sabuntawa ga mutum daya a shekarar 2020

Amfani

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Adadin ruwan sha da ake ba da shawarar mutum ya sha a kowace rana ya bambanta.[1] Ya danganta da yanayin motsa jiki, shekaru, lafiya, da kuma muhalli. A ƙasar Amurka, Adadin Shaye-shaye da Ya Dacewa na daukacin ruwa, bisa ga matsakaicin bincike, shi ne 4.0 litres (141 imp fl oz; 135 US fl oz) a rana ga maza da suka fita shekaru 18, sannan 3.0 litres (106 imp fl oz; 101 US fl oz) a rana ga mata da suka fita shekaru 18; wannan kiyasin ya ɗauka cewa kusan kashi 80% na ruwan yana fitowa ne daga abin sha, kashi 20% kuma daga abinci.[14] Hukumar Kare Abinci ta Turai (European Food Safety Authority) tana ba da shawarar lita 2.0 litres (70 imp fl oz; 68 US fl oz) na daukacin ruwa a kowace rana ga mata, sannan lita 2.5 litres (88 imp fl oz; 85 US fl oz) a kowace rana ga maza.[15]

Dabbobi

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Ana nazarin fannonin inganci da yawa na buƙatun ruwan sha ga gidan dabbobi a cikin tsarin kiwon dabbobi. Misali, manomi na iya tsara tanadin 35 U.S. gallons (130 L) na ruwa a kowace rana ga saniyar madara, kashi ɗaya bisa uku na wannan adadin ga doki, sannan kashi ɗaya cikin goma na wannan adadin ga alade.[16]

Kodayake, bincike kalilan ne kacal aka mayar da hankali akai game da dabi'un shan ruwa na namun daji (dabbobin daji).

Inganci

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Kasashen da ruwan famfo yake da amincin sha

Bisa ga rahoton Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya na shekarar 2017, ingantaccen ruwan sha shine ruwan da "ba ya tattare da wani gagarumin haɗari ga lafiya a tsawon rayuwar shan sa, gami da la'akari da mabambantan yanayin rauni da ke iya aukuwa tsakanin matakan rayuwa".[17]:2

Bisa ga rahoton da UNICEF da UNESCO suka fitar, ƙasar Finland ce tafi kowace ƙasa ingancin ruwan sha a duniya.[18][19]

Ma'aunan lura da inganci

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Ma'aunan ingancin ruwan sha yawanci sun kasu kashi uku: na abubuwan da ba a iya gani da ido (microbiological), na sinadarai (chemical), da na zahiri (physical).

Ma'aunan microbiological sun haɗa da kwayoyin cuta na coliform, E. coli, da wasu takamaiman nau'ikan kwayoyin cuta na bacteria masu haddasa rashin lafiya (kamar Vibrio cholerae mai haddasa kwalara), kwayoyin cuta na viruses da parasites na protozoan. Da fari, ana gano gurbacewar bashi ne ta hanyar kasancewar kwayoyin cuta na coliform, wanda ke zama alama mai sauƙi ga rukunin kwayoyin cutar bashi masu cutarwa. Kasancewar fecal coliforms (kamar E. Coli) na zama nuni ga gurbacewa daga ruwan kazanta (sewage). Sauran gurbatawa sun haɗa da protozoan oocysts kamar Cryptosporidium sp., Giardia lamblia, Legionella, da kuma kwayoyin cuta na viruses (enteric).[20] Ma'aunan kwayoyin cuta masu haddasa rashin lafiya (microbial pathogenic) yawanci sune aka fi mayar da hankali akansu saboda haɗarin gaggawa da suke yi wa lafiya.

Misali na ma'aunan zahiri da na sinadarai da aka auna a cikin samfuran ruwan sha a kasashen Kenya da Ethiopia a zaman bangare na bitar tsari ta adabin da aka buga[21]

Ma'aunan zahiri da na sinadarai sun haɗa da rukunin karafa masu guba (heavy metals), gurbatattun sinadarai na organic (trace organic compounds), daskararrun abubuwa da ke yawo a ruwa (total suspended solids) da duka-duka ko dundunewar ruwa (turbidity). Ma'aunan sinadarai sun fi haifar da haɗari na tsayi ga lafiya ta hanyar taruwar karafa masu guba, kodayake wasu abubuwan kamar nitrates/nitrites da arsenic na iya samun tasiri na gaggawa. Ma'aunan zahiri suna shafar bayyanar gani da kuma dandanon ruwan sha, sannan suna iya kawo cikas wajen kawar da kwayoyin cuta na microbial.

Magungunan kashe kwari (pesticides) su ma suna iya zama gurbatawa ga ruwan sha a ƙarƙashin rukunin 'gurbatawa na sinadarai'. Magungunan kashe kwari na iya kasancewa a cikin ruwan sha a cikin ƙananan adadi, amma gubar sinadarin da kuma girman yadda ɗan adam ke mu'amala da shi sune abubuwan da ake amfani da su don tantance takamaiman haɗarin lafiya.[22]

Sinadaran Perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS) rukunoni ne na sinadarai da ɗan adam ya ƙirƙira waɗanda ake amfani da su a cikin nau'ikan kayan masarufi daban-daban, kamar kayan kunshe-kunshen abinci, yadudduka masu hana ruwa ratsawa, kafet, da kayan girki. An san PFAS da juriya a cikin muhalli kuma galibi ana siffanta su a matsayin gurbataccen sinadarin organic mai dorewa (persistent organic pollutants). An gano sinadaran PFAS a cikin jini, na mutane da na dabbobi, a duk duniya, haka kuma a cikin kayan abinci, ruwa, iska, da ƙasa.[23] Binciken gwaji akan dabbobi da aka yi da PFAS ya nuna tasiri akan girma da ci gaba, sannan mai yiwuwa akwai tasiri akan haihuwa, thyroid, tsarin garkuwar jiki, da hanta.[24] Har zuwa shekarar 2022, ba a gama fahimtar tasirin lafiya na yawancin sinadaran PFAS ba. Masana kimiyya suna gudanar da bincike don tantance girma da tsananin tasirin PFAS akan lafiyar ɗan adam.[25] An gano PFAS ko'ina cikin ruwan sha a duk duniya kuma an ɓullo da dokoki, ko kuma suna kan tsarin ɓullo da su, a ƙasashe da dama.[26] Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka (EPA) ta buga hanyoyin gwajin dakin bincike don sinadaran PFAS.[27]

Ka'idodin ingancin ruwan sha

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Siffar "F-diagram" (bashi, yatsu, kudaje, gonaki, ruwaye, abinci), tana nuna hanyoyin yaduwar cututtuka daga bashi zuwa baki. Layukan shudi na tsaye suna nuna abubuwan kariya: dakunan gari, ingantaccen ruwa, tsaftar muhalli da wanke hannu.

Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya (WHO) tana daukar samun ingantaccen ruwan sha a matsayin daya daga cikin muhimman hakkokin dan adam. An kiyasta cewa gurbataccen ruwa yana sanadiyyar mutuwar mutane sama da rabi miliyan a kowace shekara.[28] A shekarar 2010, Sakatare Janar na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya na wancan lokacin, Ban Ki-moon, ya bayyana cewa mutanen da ke mutuwa sanadiyyar rashin ingancin ruwa sun fi yawancin wadanda ke mutuwa a sanadiyyar yaki.[4] An kiyasta cewa gurbataccen ruwa tare da rashin tsaftar muhalli sun haifar da kusan kashi daya cikin dari na shekarun rayuwa da aka rasa saboda nakasa (disability adjusted life years) a duk duniya a shekarar 2010.[29] A cewar WHO, cututtukan da aka fi sani da ke da alaka da rashin ingancin ruwa sune kwalara, gudawa, zawayi mai jini (dysentery), cutar hanta ta hepatitis A, zazzabin taifot (typhoid), da cutar shan inna (polio).[30]

Daya daga cikin manyan abubuwan da ke haifar da gurbatar ruwan sha a kasashe masu tasowa shine karancin tsarin tsaftar muhalli da rashin tsaftar jiki. A saboda wannan dalili, auna yawan nauyin cututtuka da ake samu daga shan gurbataccen ruwan sha yawanci yana duba bangarorin ruwa, tsaftar muhalli, da tsaftar jiki gaba daya. Ana amfani da gajertaccen sunan nan WASH don wakiltar wadannan abubuwa – wato Ruwa (Water), Tsaftar Muhalli (Sanitation), da Tsaftar Jiki (Hygiene).


Gudawa, rashin abinci mai gina jiki da takurewar girma

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Tarihin talauci galibi yana kaiwa ga yanayin rayuwa maras tsafta, kamar a wannan al'umma da ke yankin Himalayas na kasar Indiya. Irin wadannan yanayi suna taimakawa wajen kamuwa da cututtukan gudawa, sakamakon gurbataccen ruwan sha, karancin tsaftar muhalli da tsaftar jiki.

Shan gurbataccen ruwan karkashin kasa

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An kiyasta cewa mutane miliyan sittin ne suka guba ta hanyar amfani da ruwan rijiya da ke gurbace da sinadarin fluoride mai yawa, wanda ya narke daga duwatsun granite. Tasirin hakan yana bayyana sosai musamman a lalacewar kashin yara. Ana fargabar faruwar makamancin wadannan matsaloli ko ma fi gaban haka a wasu kasashen da suka hada da China, Uzbekistan, da Ethiopia. Kodayake yana da amfani ga lafiyar hakora idan aka yi amfani da shi a tabbataccen mizaninsa na kasa-kasa, sinadarin fluoride mai yawa yana kawo cikas ga ginin kashi na jiki.[31]

Shan ruwa mai dauke da sinadarin fluoride mai yawa na dogon lokaci (> 1.5 ppm F) na iya haifar da mummunan sakamako maras kyau kamar matsalar hakora ta fluorosis, tabon baki da matsalar kashi ta skeletal fluorosis, da nakasar kashi ga yara. Tsananin matsalar fluorosis ya dogara ne da yawan fluoride da ke cikin ruwan, da kuma nau'in abincin mutane da ayyukan motsa jiki da suke yi. Hanyoyin cire fluoride daga ruwa sun hada da hanyoyin amfani da tantane (membrane-based methods), hazo (precipitation), tsotsewa (absorption), da kuma daskarewa ta hanyar lantarki (electrocoagulation).[32]

Gurbatar ruwan karkashin kasa ta dabi'a da sinadarin arsenic barazana ce ta duniya baki daya inda ta shafi mutane miliyan 140 a kasashe 70 na duniya.[33]

Misalan abubuwan da suka auku na rashin ingancin ruwan sha

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Wasu misalan matsalolin ingancin ruwa tare da tsarin samar da ruwan sha sun hada da:[34]

  • A shekarar 1854, John Snow ya gano cewa bullar cutar kwalara a yankin Soho na birnin London ta samo asali ne daga gurbataccen ruwa daga famfon Broad Street. Wannan ya kasance babban taron kafa ilimin kimiyyar cututtuka (epidemiology).[Ana bukatan hujja]
  • Gurbatar ruwan karkashin kasa da sinadarin arsenic a kasar Bangladesh; guba mafi girma da ta taba shafar al'umma mai yawa a tarihi (wanda ya fara a shekarun 1970 zuwa 1980, kuma aka amince da shi a hukumance a shekarar 1993).[Ana bukatan hujja]
  • Gurbatar ruwan karkashin kasa a Hinkley (gurbatar rijiyoyin karkashin kasa na kashin kai da sinadarin Chromium-6 a Hinkley, California, Amurka (an daidaita maganar a shekarar 1996).[Ana bukatan hujja]
  • Bullar cutar E. coli a Walkerton (gurbatar tsarin samar da ruwa da kwayoyin cuta na Escherichia coli O157:H7 da Campylobacter a Walkerton, Ontario, Canada a shekarar 2000). A shekarar 2000, barkewar cutar E. coli ta auku a Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. Mutane bakwai suka mutu sakamakon shan gurbataccen ruwa. Daruruwan mutane kuma suka wahala daga alamomin cutar.[35]
  • Rikicin ruwa na Flint (gurbatar tsarin samar da ruwa da dalma da kwayoyin cuta na Legionella a Flint, Michigan, Amurka, wanda ya fara a shekarar 2014).[Ana bukatan hujja]
  • Rikicin ruwa na Jackson, Mississippi, Amurka (2022).[Ana bukatan hujja]
  • A shekarar 1987, barkewar cutar cryptosporidiosis a yammacin Georgia.[36]
  • A shekarar 1993, Barkewar cutar Cryptosporidium a Milwaukee.
  • A shekarar 1998, bullar zazzabin taifot (typhoid fever) a arewacin kasar Isra'ila, wanda ke da alaka da gurbataccen ruwan da hukumar birni ke samarwa.[37]
  • A shekarar 1997, an sami akandu 369 na cutar cryptosporidiosis, sakamakon gurbataccen mabuwar ruwa (fountain) a gidan ajiyar dabbobi na Minnesota. Yawancin wadanda abun ya shafa yara ne.[38]
  • A shekarar 1998, an dora alhakin barkewar cutar campylobacteriosis a arewacin Finland akan tsarin samar da ruwa na birni wanda ba a sa masa sinadarin chlorine ba.[39]
  • A shekarar 2000, barkewar cutar gastroenteritis (ciwon ciki da hanji) wanda tsarin samar da ruwa na al'umma da ba a sa masa chlorine ba ya haifar, a kudancen Finland.[40]
  • A shekarar 2004, an ba da rahoton gurbatar tsarin samar da ruwa na al'umma, wanda ke hidima ga tsakiyar birnin Bergen na kasar Norway, bayan barkewar cutar giardiasis ta hanyar ruwa.[41]
  • A shekarar 2007, an gano gurbataccen ruwan sha wanda ya kai ga barkewar cutar gastroenteritis mai dauke da mabambantan sababbin kwayoyin cuta (aetiologies) a kasar Denmark.[42]

Misalan gurbatar sinadarai sun hada da:

  • A shekarar 1988 mutane da yawa sun guba a Camelford, lokacin da wani ma'aikaci ya zuba tan 20 na sinadarin aluminium sulphate (mai daskalar da dauda) a cikin tankin da ba shi ba.
  • A shekarar 1993 an sami barkewar gubar fluoride sakamakon zuba sinadarin fluoride fiye da kima, a Mississippi.[43]
  • A shekarar 2007 tsarin samar da ruwa na Spencer, Massachusetts ya gurbace da sinadarin sodium hydroxide (lye) fiye da kima lokacin da kayan aikin tace ruwan suka lalace.[44]
  • A shekarar 2019 man inji na transformer na lantarki ya shiga cikin tsarin samar da ruwa na birnin Uummannaq a Greenland. Wani jirgin ruwa na kaya da ke tashar jiragen ruwa ya sami damar samar da mafi kankancin ruwa ga birnin na tsawon kwanaki biyu har sai da aka gyara babban tsarin samar da ruwa sannan aka fara wanke dukkan bututun ruwan.[45]

Tace Ruwa da Gyaransa

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Matatun tace ruwa

Mafi yawancin ruwa yana buƙatar wani nau'i na tacewa ko gyara kafin amfani; har ma da ruwan da ke fitowa daga thonon rijiyoyi masu zurfi ko idon ruwa. Girman matakin tacewar ya dogara ne da tushen da ruwan yake fitowa. Zaɓuɓɓukan fasahar da suka dace a fannin tace ruwa sun haɗa da tsare-tsaren tacewa na matakin al'umma baki ɗaya da kuma na matakin gida (point-of-use - POU).[46] Kalo kaɗan ne kawai daga cikin manyan birane kamar Christchurch a ƙasar New Zealand ke da damar samun ruwa mai tsafta sosai kuma mai yawa wanda baya buƙatar kowane irin tacewa kafin a sha.[47]

A lokutan gaggawa lokacin da tsarin tace ruwa na yau da kullum ya lalace, ana iya kashe kwayoyin cuta na ruwa ko rage musu ƙarfi ta hanyar tafasawa[48] sai dai wannan yana buƙatar wadatar makamashin wuta, kuma yana iya zama babban kalubale ga masu amfani da ruwan, musamman inda yake da wuya a adana tafasasshen ruwan a cikin yanayi maras kwayoyin cuta. Wasu fasahohin, kamar tace ruwa da abubuwan tantane, amfani da sinadarai masu kashe kwayoyin cuta, da kuma fito da hasken ultraviolet (gami da hasken rana na UV) an nuna su a cikin jerin gwaje-gwajen bincike da aka gudanar cewa suna rage yawan cututtukan da ake samu ta hanyar ruwa tsakanin masu amfani a ƙasashe masu ƙarancin kuɗi,[49] amma su ma suna fama da irin matsalolin da hanyoyin tafasawa ke fuskanta.

Wani nau'i na daban na tace ruwa shi ne wanda ake kira cire gishiri daga ruwa (desalination) kuma ana amfani da shi ne musamman a yankunan da ke da bushewa waɗanda ke da damar samun manyan rukunonin ruwan gishiri (kamar teku).

Samun ruwan sha tabbatacce da aka tace wanda ke gaban jama'a a tarihi yana da alaƙa da gagarumin ƙaruwar tsawon rayuwa da kuma inganta lafiyar jama'a. Kashe kwayoyin cuta na ruwa na iya rage haɗarin cututtukan da ake samu ta hanyar ruwa kamar zazzabin taifot da kwalara. Amfani da sinadarin chlorine (chlorination) a halin yanzu shine mafi yawan hanyar kashe kwayoyin cuta na ruwa da ake amfani da ita ko'ina, kodayake sinadaran chlorine na iya yin martani da wasu abubuwa a cikin ruwa su samar da gurbatattun abubuwan da ke biyo baya (disinfection by-products - DBP) waɗanda ke haifar da matsaloli ga lafiyar ɗan adam.[50] Yanayin ƙasa na gida (geological conditions) da ke shafar ruwan ƙarƙashin ƙasa sune abubuwan da ke tantance kasancewar ions na karafa daban-daban, waɗanda galibi ke sanya ruwan ya zama "maras daskarewa/laushi" (soft) ko kuma "mai daskarewa/kauri" (hard).

Idan gurbatar ruwan sha ta auku, jami'an gwamnati yawanci suna ba da shawarwari game da amfani da ruwan. Idan gurbatar ta kasance ta fannin halittu (biological contamination), yawanci ana shawartar mazauna yankin da su tafasa ruwansu kafin su sha ko su yi amfani da ruwan kwalba a matsayin madadin. Idan kuma gurbatar ta kasance ta fannin sinadarai (chemical contamination), ana iya shawartar mazauna yankin da su guji amfani da ruwan famfo baki ɗaya har sai an magance matsalar.

Hanyoyin tacewa a matakin amfani

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Ikon zaɓuɓɓukan tacewa a matakin amfani (POU) wajen rage cututtuka ya dogara ne da ikonsu na kawar da kwayoyin cuta na microbial idan aka yi amfani da su yadda ya kamata, da kuma wasu abubuwan zamantakewa kamar sauƙin amfani da dacewar al'ada. Fasahohin na iya samar da ƙarin (ko rashi) fa'idar lafiya fiye da yadda ayyukan cire kwayoyin cuta na dakin gwaje-gwaje suka nuna.

Babban fifiko na yanzu na masu goyon bayan tacewa a matakin POU shine su isa ga babban adadi na gidaje masu ƙarancin kuɗi a kan tsari mai dorewa. Kalo kaɗan ne daga cikin matakan POU suka kai ga babban mataki na bazuwa zuwa yanzu, amma ƙoƙarin haɓakawa da rarraba waɗannan kayayyaki ta hanyar kasuwanci ga matalautan duniya ya ɗauki tsawon shekaru kaɗan kacal da fara gudanarwa.

Kashe kwayoyin cuta na ruwa ta hanyar amfani da hasken rana (solar water disinfection) hanya ce mai arha ta tsaftace ruwa wacce galibi ana iya aiwatar da ita da kayayyakin da ake iya samu a cikin gida.[51][52][53][54] Ba kamar hanyoyin da suka dogara da itacen wuta ba, wannan hanyar ba ta da wani illa mai yawa ga muhalli.

Ƙarin sinadarin fluoride

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A yankuna da dama, ana ƙara ƙarancin adadi na sinadarin fluoride (< 1.0 ppm F) da gangan a cikin ruwan famfo don inganta lafiyar haƙora, kodayake a wasu al'ummomin batun sa sinadarin fluoride a cikin ruwa ya kasance lamari mai kawo dambarwa da saɓani. (Duba batun saɓani game da sanya fluoride a ruwa).

Samun Dama a Matakin Duniya

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Taswirar duniya don Samfuri:Abbreviation Manuniya 6.1.1 a shekarar 2022: "Rabon yawan mutanen da ke amfani da ingantaccen tsarin samar da ruwan sha"
Yawan mutane a yankunan da aka gudanar da bincike waɗanda ke rayuwa ba tare da ingantaccen ruwan sha ba kamar yaddda Hukumar WHO/UNICEF JMP ta ruwaito[7]

A cewar Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya (WHO), "samun ruwan sha mai tsafta yana da matukar muhimmanci ga lafiya, hakki ne na ɗan adam kuma muhimmin sashi ne na ingantacciyar manufa don kiyaye lafiya."[17]:2 A shekarar 1990, kashi 76 ne kawai na al'ummar duniya ke da damar samun ruwan sha. Amma kafin shekarar 2015, wannan adadi ya karu zuwa kashi 91 cikin dari.[55] A shekarar 1990, yawancin kasashe a Latin Amurka, Gabashi da Kudancin Asiya, da kuma yankin kudu da hamadar sahara (Sub-Saharan Africa) suna kasa da kashi 90%. A yankin kudu da hamadar sahara, inda alkaluman suka fi ƙanƙanta, samun damar gidaje ya tashi ne daga kashi 40 zuwa 80 cikin dari.[55] Kasashen da ke fuskantar rikice-rikice na makami na iya samun raguwa wajen samun ruwan sha: Wani bincike ya gano cewa rikicin da ke sanadin mace-macen yaki kusan 2,500 yana tauye wa kashi 1.8% na al'ummar yankin damar samun ruwan sha.[56]

A yawancin lokuta a kasashen da suka ci gaba, ruwan famfo yana cika ka'idojin ingancin ruwan sha, duk da cewa kaso kalilan ne kawai ake sha ko ake amfani da shi wajen dafa abinci. Sauran saba'atun amfani na ruwan famfo sun hada da wanke-wanke, ban daki, da ban ruwa. Hakanan ana iya amfani da ruwan wanke-wanke da aka tace (greywater) don ban daki ko ban ruwa. To sai dai amfani da shi wajen ban ruwa na iya kasancewa yana da hadari.[28]

A matakin duniya, kafin shekarar 2015, kashi 89% na mutane suna samun ruwa daga hanyoyin da suka dace don sha—wanda ake kira ingantattun hanyoyin samun ruwa.[28] A yankin kudu da hamadar sahara, samun ruwan sha ya tashi ne tsakanin kashi 40% zuwa 80% na al'ummar kasar. Kusan mutane biliyan 4.2 a duniya suna samun ruwan famfo, yayin da wasu biliyan 2.4 ke samun ruwa daga rijiyoyi ko famfunan taron jama'a.[28]

Kafin shekarar 2015, mutane biliyan 5.2 wadanda ke wakiltar kashi 71% na al'ummar duniya sun yi amfani da ingantaccen tsarin samar da ruwan sha.[57] Ya zuwa shekarar 2017, kashi 90% na mutane suna samun ruwa daga hanyar da ta dace don sha—wato "ingantacciyar hanyar samun ruwa"—kuma kashi 71% na duniya na iya samun ingantaccen ruwan sha mai tsafta kuma a lokacin da suke bukata.[28] Kimantawa ta nuna cewa aƙalla kashi 25% na ingantattun hanyoyin samun ruwan suna ɗauke da gurbatar kashin mutane (fecal contamination).[58] Har yanzu mutane biliyan 1.8 ke amfani da gurbatacciyar hanyar samun ruwan sha wacce ka iya kasancewa tana da gurbatar kashi.[28] Wannan na iya haifar da cututtuka masu yaduwa, kamar ciwon zawo da amai (gastroenteritis), kwalara, da zazzabin taifot, da dai sauransu.[28] Rage cututtukan da ke yaduwa ta hanyar ruwa da kuma bunkasa ingantattun hanyoyin samun ruwa babban buri ne na lafiyar jama'a a kasashe masu tasowa. A shekarar 2017, kusan Amurkawa miliyan 22 ne suka sha ruwa daga tsarin da ya saba wa ka'idojin lafiyar jama'a, wanda hakan zai iya taimakawa wajen kamuwa da cututtukan da ake samu ta hanyar ruwa.[59]Samfuri:Full citation needed Ruwan sha mai tsafta lamari ne da ya shafi lafiyar muhalli. Ana sayar da ruwan kwalba don amfanin jama'a a yawancin sassan duniya.

Ana kuma sanya ido kan ingantattun hanyoyin samar da ruwa dangane da ko ana samun ruwan lokacin da ake bukata (mutane biliyan 5.8), ko yana kusa da gida (biliyan 5.4), ko ba shi da gurbatawa (biliyan 5.4), da kuma ko ana samun sa cikin tafiyar da ba ta wuce minti 30 zuwa da dawowa.[57]:3 Yayin da ingantattun hanyoyin samar da ruwa kamar ruwan famfo da aka kiyaye suka fi ba da damar samar da ingantaccen ruwa mai gamsarwa saboda suna iya hana haduwa da kashin mutane, misali, hakan ba koyaushe ne ke faruwa ba.[55] A cewar wani bincike na shekarar 2014, kusan kashi 25% na ingantattun hanyoyin samun ruwan sun ƙunshi gurbatar kashi.[58]

Al'ummar kasashen Ostareliya, New Zealand, Arewacin Amurka da Turai sun kusan samun cikakkiyar hanyar samun ruwan sha ta yau da kullum baki ɗaya.[57]:3

Saboda tsadar jarin farko na kafawa, kasashe da yawa marasa arziki ba za su iya kafawa ko dorewar ababen more rayuwa da suka dace ba, kuma a sakamakon haka mutane a wadannan yankuna na iya kashe kaso mai yawa na kudaden shigarsu wajen sayen ruwa.[60] Kididdigar shekarar 2003 daga kasar El Salvador, misali, ta nuna cewa kashi 20% na gidaje mafi talauci suna kashe fiye da 10% na jimillar kudaden shigarsu wajen sayen ruwa. A kasar Burtaniya (UK), hukumomi sun bayyana kashe fiye da kashi 3% na kudin shiga wajen sayen ruwa a matsayin tsananin rayuwa.[61]

Sanya ido kan samun dama a matakin duniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hukumar JMP ta WHO/UNICEF ita ce hanyar hukuma ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da ke da alhakin sanya ido kan ci gaban da aka samu wajen cimma Buri na Ci gaban Karni (MDG) da ya shafi ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli (MDG 7, Manufa 7c), wanda shine: "Rage rabin rabo, kafin shekarar 2015, na yawan mutanen da ba su da damar samun ruwan sha mai tsafta da tsaftar muhalli."[62] Ana nuna samun damar samun ruwan sha mai tsafta ta hanyar amintattun hanyoyin samun ruwa. Waɗannan ingantattun hanyoyin samar da ruwan sha sun haɗa da haɗin famfo na gida, famfo na taron jama'a, yanayin taba rijiyar burtsatse, rijiyar gano ruwa da aka kiyaye, idon ruwa da aka kiyaye, da kuma tarin ruwan sama. Hanyoyin da ba su tallafawa samar da ingantaccen ruwan sha zuwa matsayi guda da wadanda aka ambata a baya sun hada da: rijiyoyin da ba a kiyaye ba, idon ruwa da ba a kiyaye ba, koguna ko tafkuna, ruwan da masu sayarwa ke samarwa, ruwan kwalba (sakamakon gazawa a adadi, ba ingancin ruwan ba), da kuma ruwan motar tanki. Samun ruwa mai tsafta yana tafiya kafada da kafada da samun ingantattun wuraren tace bayan gida don kashin mutane, kamar haɗawa da magudanar ruwa na jama'a, haɗawa da tsarin rami (septic system), ko ban dakin rami mai dabe ko mariƙin ruwa.[63]

Bisa ga wannan manuniya ta ingantattun hanyoyin samar da ruwa, an cika burin MDG a shekarar 2010, shekaru biyar gabanin jadawalin lokaci. Fiye da mutane biliyan 2 sun yi amfani da ingantattun hanyoyin samar da ruwan sha a shekarar 2010 fiye da yadda aka yi a shekarar 1990. Duk da haka, aikin bai kammala ba tukuna. Har yanzu mutane miliyan 780 ba su da ingantattun hanyoyin samun ruwan sha, kuma da yawa suna fama da rashin ruwan sha mai tsafta. Kimantawa ta nuna cewa aƙalla kashi 25% na ingantattun hanyoyin samun ruwan suna ɗauke da gurbatar kashi[58] kuma kimanin mutane biliyan 1.8 a duniya ke amfani da hanyar samar da ruwan sha wacce ke fama da gurbatar kashi.[64] Ingancin waɗannan hanyoyin samar da ruwa yana canzawa cikin lokaci kuma galibi yana kara tabarbarewa a lokacin damina.[65] Ana buƙatar ci gaba da ƙoƙari don rage bambance-bambance tsakanin birane da birane da rashin daidaiton da ke tattare da talauci; don haɓaka samar da ruwan sha mai tsafta sosai a ƙasashe na kudu da hamadar sahara da Oceania; don inganta kulawa da ingancin ruwan sha a matakin duniya; da kuma duba bayan burin MDG zuwa ga samar da kowa da kowa baki daya.[66]

Dokoki da Ka'idoji

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An buga jagororin kimantawa da inganta ayyukan samar da ruwa a cikin nau'ikan ka'idojin ingancin ruwan sha kamar su ISO 24510.[67]

Tarayyar Turai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Misali, Tarayyar Turai (EU) tana kafa dokoki akan ingancin ruwa. Dokar 2000/60/EC ta Majalisar Tarayyar Turai da ta Majalisar mambobi ta ranar 23 ga Oktoba 2000 wacce ta kafa tsari na ayyukan Al'umma a fannin manufofin ruwa, wacce aka sani da dokar tsarin ruwa (water framework directive), ita ce babbar doka da ke jagorantar al'amuran ruwa.[68] Wannan dokar ruwan sha ta shafi musamman ruwan da aka yi niyyar amfani da shi ga bil'adama. Kowane memba na ƙasa ne ke da alhakin kafa matakan tsaro da sa ido da ake buƙata don tabbatar da cewa an aiwatar da dokar. Misali, a ƙasar Burtaniya (UK) Ka'idojin Ingancin Ruwa sun kayyade mafi girman ma'aunai na abubuwan da ke shafar lafiyar ruwan, kuma Hukumar Kula da Ruwan Sha (Drinking Water Inspectorate) ce ke sanya ido kan kamfanonin ruwa.

Japan

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Don inganta ingancin ruwa, Ma'aikatar Lafiya ta ƙasar Japan ta sabunta ka'idojin ingancin ruwanta, waɗanda aka fara amfani da su a cikin watan Afrilu na shekarar 2004.[69] Kwararru da dama ne suka haɓaka waɗannan ka'idoji na ruwan sha.[69] Hakanan sun ƙayyade hanyoyin gudanar da ingantaccen tsarin ruwa mai inganci. A shekarar 2008, an gudanar da ingantattun dokoki don kyautata ingancin ruwan da kuma rage haɗarin gurbatar ruwa.[69]

New Zealand

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Doka ta Ayyukan Ruwa ta shekarar 2021 ta kawo kafa Hukumar 'Taumata Arowai' a matsayin sabuwar mai lura da ka'idojin ruwan sha da kuma kula da tsaftace ruwan datti a ƙasar New Zealand. Ayyukan farko sun haɗa da kafa rajista na ƙasa na masu samar da ruwa da kuma kafa rukunin dakunan gwaje-gwaje da aka amince da su don binciken ruwan sha da ruwan datti.[70]

Singapore

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙasar Singapore babbar mai shigo da ruwa ce daga maƙwabciyarta ƙasar Malaysia amma kuma ta yi ƙoƙari sosai wajen sake tace ruwan da aka riga aka yi amfani da shi gwargwadon iko don tabbatar da wadatar samar da ruwa ga birnin da ke da cunkoson jama'a. Ana tallata ruwan da suka sake tace shi a matsayin NEWater. Singapore ta sabunta dokarta ta ingancin ruwa a shekarar 2019, inda ta kafa ka'idoji da suka yi daidai da ka'idojin da Hukumar WHO ta ba da shawarar amfani da su. Sashen Kula da Lafiyar Jama'a na Muhalli na Gwamnatin Singapore ne ke gudanar da sanya ido.[71]

Burtaniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A ƙasar Burtaniya, tsara dokokin samar da ruwa lamari ne da aka raba ikonsa ga Majalisun ƙasar Wales (Senedd Cymru), Scotland, da kuma Majalisar Ireland ta Arewa.

A ƙasashen Ingila da Wales akwai hukumomi guda biyu masu tsara dokokin masana'antar ruwa.

  • Hukumar Tsara Ayyukan Ruwa (Ofwat) ita ce mai tsara tattalin arziki na fannin ruwa; tana kare muradun masu amfani ta hanyar haɓaka gasa mai inganci da kuma tabbatar da cewa kamfanonin ruwa suna gudanar da ayyukansu na doka. Ofwat tana da hukumar gudanarwa da ta ƙunshi shugaba, Babban Jami'in Gudanarwa, da membobin zartarwa da wadanda ba na zartarwa ba. Akwai ma'aikata kusan 240.[72]
  • Hukumar Kula da Ruwan Sha (DWI) tana ba da tabbaci mai zaman kansa cewa masana'antar ruwa da aka mayar hannun 'yan kasuwa tana samar da ruwan sha amintacce kuma mai tsafta ga masu amfani. An kafa DWI a shekarar 1990 kuma ta ƙunshi Babban Sufeto na Ruwan Sha da kuma tawagar mutane kusan 40.[73] Ma'aunai na yanzu na ingancin ruwa an bayyana su a cikin Kundin Dokoki na shekarar 2016 Lamba 614 na Ka'idojin Samar da Ruwa (Ingancin Ruwa) na shekarar 2016.[74]

Ayyuka da nauye-nauyen dakarun an bayyana su a fannin shari'a a cikin Dokar Masana'antar Ruwa ta shekarar 1991 (1991 c. 56) kamar yadda aka yi gyara a cikin Dokar Ruwa ta shekarar 2003 (2003 c. 37) da Dokar Ruwa ta shekarar 2014 (2014 c. 21).[75]

A ƙasar Scotland ingancin ruwa yana ƙarƙashin kulawar mai zaman kansa na Hukumar Kula da Ingancin Ruwan Sha (DWQR).[76]

A Ireland ta Arewa, Hukumar Kula da Ruwan Sha (DWI) ita ce ke tsara ingancin ruwan sha na kayyadaddun ababen more rayuwa na gwamnati da na kamfanoni masu zaman kansu.[77] Ma'aunai na yanzu na ingancin ruwa an bayyana su a cikin Ka'idojin Samar da Ruwa (Ingancin Ruwa) (Ireland ta Arewa) na shekarar 2017.[78]

Amurka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wajen samun damar shiga ruwan sha, inganci da kuma adadi duka muhimman ma'aunai ne, amma galibi ana ba da fifiko ga adadin ruwan.[34] A tsawon tarihin ɗan adam, ingancin ruwa ya kasance babban ƙalubale na yau da kullum kuma mai dorewa. Wasu rikice-rikice na musamman sun haifar da manyan canje-canje a fannin ilimi, manufofi, da kuma tsare-tsaren dokoki. Abubuwan da ke kawo canjin sun bambanta: ɓullwar cutar kwalara a shekarun 1850 a birnin London (1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak) ta sa John Snow ya zurfafa fahimtarmu game da cututtukan da ake samu ta hanyar ruwa. Sai dai kuma, juyin juya halin tsaftar muhalli na birnin London ya faru ne sakamakon manufofin siyasa da fifikon zamantakewa kafin ma a amince da hujjojin kimiyya.[34]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. 1 2 3 Ann C. Grandjean (August 2004). "3" (PDF). Water Requirements, Impinging Factors, & Recommended Intakes. World Health Organization. pp. 25–34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 February 2016. This 2004 article focuses on the USA context and uses data collected from the US military.
  2. ↑ Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (PDF). National Center for Environmental Assessment. September 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015.
  3. ↑ "Drinking-water". World Health Organization. March 2018. Archived from the original on 5 June 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
  4. 1 2 "Unsafe water kills more people than war, Ban says on World Day". UN News. 22 March 2010. Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
  5. ↑ Gadgil, Ashok J. (1998). "Drinking Water in Developing Countries". Annual Review of Energy and the Environment. Annual Reviews. 23 (1): 253–286. doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253. Archived from the original on 19 February 2026. Retrieved 26 March 2026. Unsafe drinking water remains a major issue in developing countries..
  6. ↑ Hall, Ellen L.; Dietrich, Andrea M. (2000). "A Brief History of Drinking Water." Archived 8 ga Faburairu, 2015 at the Wayback Machine Washington: American Water Works Association. Product No. OPF-0051634, Accessed 13 June 2012.
  7. 1 2 Lord, Jackson; Thomas, Ashley; Treat, Neil; Forkin, Matthew; Bain, Robert; Dulac, Pierre; Behroozi, Cyrus H.; Mamutov, Tilek; Fongheiser, Jillia; Kobilansky, Nicole; Washburn, Shane; Truesdell, Claudia; Lee, Clare; Schmaelzle, Philipp H. (October 2021). "Global potential for harvesting drinking water from air using solar energy". Nature (in Turanci). 598 (7882): 611–617. Bibcode:2021Natur.598..611L. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03900-w. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 8550973 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34707305 Check |pmid= value (help).
  8. ↑ Hu, Zhihua; Morton, Lois Wright; Mahler, Robert L. (February 2011). "Bottled water: United States consumers and their perceptions of water quality". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 8 (2): 565–578. doi:10.3390/ijerph8020565. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 3084479. PMID 21556204.
  9. ↑ Doria, Miguel F. (June 2006). "Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers' preferences" (PDF). Journal of Water & Health. 4 (2): 271–276. Bibcode:2006JWH.....4..271D. doi:10.2166/wh.2006.0023. PMID 16813019.
  10. ↑ Schardt, David (2000). "Water, Water Everywhere". Washington, D.C.: Center for Science in the Public Interest. Archived from the original on 16 May 2009.
  11. ↑ Mayer, P.W.; DeOreo, W.B.; Opitz, E.M.; Kiefer, J.C.; Davis, W.Y.; Dziegielewski, B.; & Nelson, J.O., 1999. Residential End Uses of Water. AWWARF and AWWA, Denver.
  12. ↑ William B. DeOreo, Peter Mayer, Benedykt Dziegielewski, Jack Kiefer. 2016. Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2. Water Research Foundation. Denver, Colorado.
  13. ↑ Joseph Cotruvo, Victor Kimm, Arden Calvert. "Drinking Water: A Half Century of Progress." Archived 31 ga Yuli, 2020 at the Wayback Machine EPA Alumni Association. 1 March 2016.
  14. ↑ "US daily reference intake values". Iom.edu. Archived from the original on 6 October 2011. Retrieved 5 December 2011.
  15. ↑ EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (2010). "Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for water". EFSA Journal. 8 (3): 1459. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1459.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ "Average Daily Water Needs". Aermotor Windmill Company. Archived from the original on 7 December 2024. Retrieved 16 November 2024.
  17. 1 2 Guidelines for Drinking‑water Quality (PDF) (Report) (4 ed.). World Health Organization. 2017. p. 631. ISBN 978-92-4-154995-0. Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
  18. ↑ "WWDR1: Water for People – water for life" (PDF). UNESCO and Berghahn Books. 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  19. ↑ Hwaher (1 December 2021). "The quality of water produced by Turku Region Water is rated the best in the world by Unesco". City of Turku. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  20. ↑ "Drinking Water Contaminants: Microorganisms". EPA. 21 September 2010. Archived from the original on 2 February 2015.
  21. ↑ Nowicki, Saskia; Birhanu, Behailu; Tanui, Florence; Sule, May N.; Charles, Katrina; Olago, Daniel; Kebede, Seifu (2023). "Water chemistry poses health risks as reliance on groundwater increases: A systematic review of hydrogeochemistry research from Ethiopia and Kenya". Science of the Total Environment (in Turanci). 904. Bibcode:2023ScTEn.90466929N. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166929. PMID 37689199 Check |pmid= value (help). Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help) An kwafi rubutu ne daga wannan tushe, wanda ke karkashin lasisin Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  22. ↑ "Drinking Water and Pesticides". National Pesticide Information Center. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 16 September 2021. Archived from the original on 16 September 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
  23. ↑ "PFAS Explained". EPA. 18 October 2021. Archived from the original on 22 December 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  24. ↑ "Per- and Polyfluorinated Substances Factsheet". CDC. 16 August 2021. Archived from the original on 22 December 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  25. ↑ "Increasing Our Understanding of the Health Risks from PFAS and How to Address Them". EPA. 3 November 2021. Archived from the original on 29 November 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  26. ↑ Kurwadkar, Sudarshan; Danea, Jason; Kanel, Sushil R.; et al. (22 October 2021). "Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution". Science of the Total Environment. Elsevier. 809. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151003. PMC 10184764 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34695467 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 239494337 Check |s2cid= value (help). Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ "EPA PFAS Drinking Water Laboratory Methods". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 24 April 2025. Archived from the original on 21 December 2025. Retrieved 2 January 2026.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Water Fact sheet N°391". July 2014. Archived from the original on 5 June 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015.
  29. ↑ Engell, Rebecca E; Lim, Stephen S (2013). "Does clean water matter? An updated meta-analysis of water supply and sanitation interventions and diarrhoeal diseases". The Lancet (in Turanci). 381: S44. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61298-2. Archived from the original on 21 July 2022. Retrieved 26 October 2023.
  30. ↑ "Drinking-water". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
  31. ↑ Pearce, Fred (2006). When the Rivers Run Dry: Journeys Into the Heart of the World's Water Crisis. Toronto: Key Porter. ISBN 978-1-55263-741-8.
  32. ↑ Ahuja, Satinder (2018). Advances in Water Purification Techniques: Meeting the Needs of Developed and Developing Countries. San Diego: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-814791-7. OCLC 1078565849.
  33. ↑ Bagchi, Sanjit (20 November 2007). "Arsenic threat reaching global dimensions" (PDF). Canadian Medical Association Journal. 177 (11): 1344–45. doi:10.1503/cmaj.071456. ISSN 1488-2329. PMC 2072985. PMID 18025421.
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  35. ↑ "Canada's worst-ever E. coli contamination". CBC. Archived from the original on 23 October 2004. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  36. ↑ Hayes EB, Matte TD, O'Brien TR, et al. (May 1989). "Large community outbreak of cryptosporidiosis due to contamination of a filtered public water supply". N. Engl. J. Med. 320 (21): 1372–76. doi:10.1056/NEJM198905253202103. PMID 2716783.
  37. ↑ Egoz N, Shihab S, Leitner L, Lucian M (November 1988). "An outbreak of typhoid fever due to contamination of the municipal water supply in northern Israel". Isr. J. Med. Sci. 24 (11): 640–43. PMID 3215755.
  38. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (October 1998). "Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a water sprinkler fountain – Minnesota, 1997". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 47 (40): 856–60. PMID 9790661. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  39. ↑ Kuusi M, Nuorti JP, Hänninen ML, et al. (August 2005). "A large outbreak of campylobacteriosis associated with a municipal water supply in Finland". Epidemiol. Infect. 133 (4): 593–601. doi:10.1017/S0950268805003808. PMC 2870285. PMID 16050503.
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  41. ↑ Nygård K, Schimmer B, Søbstad Ø, et al. (2006). "A large community outbreak of waterborne giardiasis-delayed detection in a non-endemic urban area". BMC Public Health. 6. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-6-141. PMC 1524744. PMID 16725025. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  42. ↑ Vestergaard LS, Olsen KE, Stensvold R, et al. (March 2007). "Outbreak of severe gastroenteritis with multiple aetiologies caused by contaminated drinking water in Denmark, January 2007". Euro Surveill. 12 (3): E070329.1. doi:10.2807/esw.12.13.03164-en. PMID 17439795.
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