Samar da Ruwa

Samar da Ruwa
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na	supply (en) , infrastructure (en) da service (en)
Bangare na	water services (en) , public utility (en) da water supply and sanitation (en)

Samar da ruwa shine samar da ruwa ta hanyar masu amfani da jama'a, kungiyoyin kasuwanci, kokarin al'umma ko kuma ta mutane, yawanci ta hanyar tsarin famfo da bututu. Tsarin samar da ruwa na jama'a yana da mahimmanci ga al'ummomin da ke aiki yadda ya kamata. Wadannan tsarin sune abin da ke samar da ruwan sha ga jama'a a duniya.^[1] Abubuwan ingancin sabis sun haɗa da ci gaba da wadata, ingancin ruwa da matsin ruwa. Ana shirya alhakin ma'aikata don samar da ruwa daban-daban a kasashe da yankuna daban-daban (birane da yankunan karkara). Yawancin lokaci ya haɗa da batutuwan da ke kewaye da manufofi da ka'idoji, samar da sabis da daidaitawa.

Kudin samar da ruwa ya kunshi, har zuwa babban matsayi, tsayayyen farashi (farashin kuɗi da farashin ma'aikata) kuma kawai zuwa ƙaramin farashi mai canzawa wanda ya dogara da adadin ruwan da aka cinye (musamman makamashi da sunadarai). Kusan dukkanin masu ba da sabis a duniya suna cajin farashi don dawo da wani ɓangare na farashin su.

Samar da ruwa wani batu ne daban daga ban ruwa, aiki da tsarin samar da ruwa a kan sikelin da ya fi girma, don dalilai daban-daban, da farko noma.

Bayani na fasaha

Tsarin samar da ruwa yana samun ruwa daga wurare daban-daban bayan magani mai dacewa, gami da ruwan kasa (aquifers), ruwan sama (kogi da koguna), da teku ta hanyar cire ruwan. Matakan Maganin ruwa sun haɗa da, a mafi yawan lokuta, tsarkakewa, disinfection ta hanyar chlorination kuma wani lokacin fluoridation. Ruwan da aka yi amfani da shi ko dai yana gudana ta hanyar nauyi ko kuma ana yin amfani da shi zuwa tafkuna, wanda za'a iya ɗaga shi kamar hasumiyoyin ruwa ko a ƙasa (don alamun da suka shafi ingancin rarraba ruwan sha duba ruwan da ba na shiga ba). Da zarar an yi amfani da ruwa, ana fitar da Ruwa mai guba a cikin tsarin datti kuma ana kula da shi a cikin masana'antar tsabtace datti kafin a fitar da shi cikin kogi, tafki, ko teku ko sake amfani da shi don shimfidar wuri ko ban ruwa. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Cibiyar samar da kayayyaki

Page 'Water supply network' not found

Amfani da shi

A cikin Amurka, Gidan iyali guda ɗaya yana amfani da kimanin ">520 US na ruwa a kowace rana (kimanin 2016) ko 58.6 US gallons (222 L) US gal) ga kowane mutum a kowace rana. Wannan ya haɗa da dalilai da yawa na amfani da ƙarshen zama (a cikin raguwa) kamar amfani da bayan gida, ruwan sama, amfani da bututu, amfani da na'urar wanki, leaks, wasu (ba a san su ba), wanka, da amfani mai wanki.^[2] ^{[better source needed]}

Abubuwan da aka ba da shawarar don bukatun ɗan adam (ga kowane mutum) ^[3]
Ayyuka	Mafi ƙarancin, lita / rana	Yankin / rana
Ruwa mai sha	5	2–5
Ayyukan tsabtace muhalli	20	20–75
Yin wanka	15	5–70
Abincin dafa abinci da dafa abinci	10	10–50

A farkon karni na 21, musamman a yankunan birane da cibiyoyin jama'a, kayan aikin tsakiya na gargajiya ba su iya samar da isasshen ruwa don ci gaba da buƙata mai girma ba. Daga cikin zaɓuɓɓuka da yawa da aka sarrafa sune amfani da fasahar cire gishiri, wannan ya fi yawa a yankunan bakin teku da ƙasashe "bisha" kamar Ostiraliya. Rarraba kayan aikin ruwa ya karu sosai a matsayin mafita mai inganci ciki har da Girbi ruwan sama da girbi na ruwan sama inda manufofi ke ci gaba da amfani da hankali da kuma samar da ra'ayoyin shigar da ruwa kamar "Fit for Purpose". ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Ingancin sabis

ingancin sabis na samar da ruwa yana da girma da yawa: ci gaba; ingancin ruwa; matsin lamba; da kuma matakin amsawa na masu ba da sabis ga korafin abokan ciniki. Mutane da yawa a Kasashe masu tasowa suna karɓar ƙarancin sabis.

Ci gaba da samarwa

Ci gaba da samar da ruwa ana ɗaukarsa a cikin mafi yawan ƙasashe masu tasowa amma matsala ce mai tsanani a ƙasashe masu ci gaba da yawa, inda wani lokacin ana ba da ruwa ne kawai na 'yan sa'o'i a kowace rana ko 'yan kwanaki a mako; wato, yana da tsinkaye. Wannan yana da matsala musamman ga ƙauyuka na al'ada, waɗanda galibi ba su da alaƙa da hanyar samar da ruwa kuma ba su da hanyar samun madadin hanyoyin kamar masu zaman kansu. An kiyasta cewa kusan rabin yawan mutanen kasashe masu tasowa suna karɓar ruwa a kan lokaci-lokaci.^[4]

Ingancin ruwa

ingancin ruwa sha yana da ƙananan halittu da kuma yanayin jiki. Akwai dubban sigogi na ingancin ruwa. A cikin tsarin samar da ruwa na jama'a ya kamata a kashe ruwa, aƙalla - galibi ta hanyar amfani da chlorination ko amfani da hasken ultraviolet - ko kuma yana iya buƙatar samun magani, musamman ma a yanayin Ruwa na sama. Ingancin ruwa kuma ya dogara da inganci da matakin gurɓataccen tushen ruwa. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Matsin ruwa

Matsi na ruwa ya bambanta a wurare daban-daban na tsarin rarrabawa. Rashin ruwa a ƙasa da titin na iya aiki a matsin lamba mafi girma, tare da mai rage matsin lamba a kowane matsayi inda ruwa ya shiga gini ko gida. A cikin tsarin da ba a sarrafa shi sosai ba, matsin ruwa na iya zama ƙasa sosai don haifar da ruwa mai yawa ko kuma yana haifar da lalacewar kayan aikin famfo da sharar ruwa. Matsin lamba a cikin tsarin ruwa na birane yawanci ana kiyaye shi ko dai ta hanyar tankin ruwa mai matsin lamba wanda ke aiki a cikin birni, ta hanyar tura ruwa zuwa cikin hasumiyar ruwa da dogaro da nauyi don kula da matsin lamba a cikin tsari ko kuma kawai ta hanyar famfo a tashar kula da ruwa da tashoshin famfo mai maimaitawa. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Matsin lamba na Burtaniya shine 4-5 bar (60-70 PSI) don samar da birane. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}Koyaya, wasu mutane na iya samun sanduna sama da takwas ko ƙasa da sanduna ɗaya. Babban bututun ƙarfe guda ɗaya na iya ƙetare kwarin mai zurfi, zai sami matsin lamba iri ɗaya, duk da haka kowane mabukaci zai sami ɗan kaɗan ko ƙasa saboda matsin lamba (kimanin 1 bar / 10 m tsawo). Don haka mutane a kasan tudu mai mita 30 (100 za su sami kusan sanduna 3 fiye da waɗanda ke saman. [ana buƙatar ƙa'ida]^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}

Matsin matsin lamba kuma ya bambanta saboda asarar matsin lamba saboda juriya ta samarwa, har ma da matsin lamba iri ɗaya. Mai amfani da birni na iya samun mita 5 na bututun 15-mm da ke gudana daga babban ƙarfe, don haka kwararar bututun kicin ba za ta kasance mai iyaka ba. Abokin ciniki na karkara na iya samun kilomita na bututun ƙarfe mai tsatsa da tsatsa mai tsatsa 22mm, don haka kwararar bututun kicin su zai zama karami. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Saboda wannan dalili, tsarin ruwa na cikin gida na Burtaniya ya yi amfani da tsarin "abinci na cisterna", inda aka haɗa wadata mai shigowa da sink na kicin da kuma tankin mai kai / ajiya a cikin Attic. Ruwa na iya shiga cikin wannan tanki ta hanyar bututu na 12 mm, tare da bawul ɗin ball, sannan kuma samar da gidan a kan bututu na 22 ko 28 mm. Ruwa mai nauyi yana da karamin matsin lamba (a ce bar a cikin gidan wanka) don haka yana buƙatar bututu mai faɗi don ba da izini ga mafi girma. Wannan yana da kyau ga wanka da bayan gida amma sau da yawa bai isa ga ruwan sama ba. Ana shigar da famfo mai haɓaka ko hydrophore don ƙarawa da kiyaye matsin lamba. Saboda wannan dalili gidajen birane suna ƙara amfani da bututun matsin lamba ("combies") wanda ke ɗaukar lokaci mai tsawo don cika wanka amma ya dace da matsin lamba na baya na wanka.

Hakki na ma'aikata da shugabanci

cibiyoyin iri-iri suna da alhakin samar da ruwa. Bambanci na asali shine tsakanin cibiyoyin da ke da alhakin manufofi da ka'idoji a gefe guda; da cibiyoyin ke da alƙawarin samar da ayyuka a gefe guda. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Manufofin da ka'idoji

Manufofin samar da ruwa da ka'idoji yawanci ana bayyana su ta hanyar ma'aikatar daya ko da yawa, tare da tuntubar reshen majalisa. A Amurka Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka, wacce mai gudanarwa ke ba da rahoto kai tsaye ga Shugaban kasa, tana da alhakin manufofin ruwa da tsabtace muhalli da daidaitawa a cikin reshen zartarwa. A wasu ƙasashe ana ba da alhakin manufofin bangarorin ga Ma'aikatar Muhalli (kamar a Mexico da Colombia), ga Ma'aikatan Lafiya (kamar Panama, Honduras da Uruguay), Ma'aikatu na Ayyukan Jama'a (kamar Ecuador da Haiti), Ma'aikatan Tattalin Arziki (kamar jihohin Jamus) ko Ma'aikin Makamashi (kamar Iran). Wasu kasashe, kamar Jordan da Bolivia, har ma suna da Ma'aikatar Ruwa. Sau da yawa ma'aikatu da yawa suna da alhakin samar da ruwa. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

A cikin Tarayyar Turai, an ba da muhimman ayyukan manufofi ga matakin kasa. Ayyukan manufofi da na tsarawa sun haɗa da saita ka'idojin farashi da amincewa da karuwar farashi; saitawa, saka idanu da aiwatar da ka'idoji don ingancin sabis da kariya ta muhalli; daidaita aikin masu ba da sabis; da sake fasalin tsarin cibiyoyin da ke da alhakin samar da sabis. Bambanci tsakanin ayyukan manufofi da ayyukan tsarawa ba koyaushe yake bayyane ba. A wasu ƙasashe an ba da su ga Ma'aikatu, amma a wasu ana ba da ayyukan tsarawa ga hukumomin da suka bambanta da Ma'aikatun. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Hukumomin sarrafawa

Kasashe da yawa a duniya sun kafa hukumomin tsarawa don ayyukan ababen more rayuwa, gami da sau da yawa samar da ruwa da tsaftacewa, don kare masu amfani da inganta inganci. Ana iya ba da hukumomin sarrafawa da ayyuka iri-iri, gami da amincewa da karuwar farashi da gudanar da tsarin bayanai na bangarori, gami na tsarin ma'auni. Wani lokaci kuma suna da izini don warware korafe-korafe daga masu amfani waɗanda ba a bi da su da gamsarwa ba. Wadannan ƙungiyoyi na musamman ana sa ran su kasance masu ƙwarewa da ƙwarewa wajen tsara masu ba da sabis fiye da sassan ma'aikatun gwamnati. Hukumomin da ke da iko ya kamata su kasance masu cin gashin kansu daga reshen zartarwa na gwamnati, amma a kasashe da yawa sau da yawa ba su iya yin amfani da babban ikon cin gashin kai ba.

A cikin Amurka hukumomin da ke kula da kayan aiki sun wanzu kusan kusan ƙarni guda a matakin jihohi, kuma a Kanada a matakin larduna. A cikin ƙasashe biyu suna rufe bangarori da yawa na ababen more rayuwa. A jihohin Amurka da yawa ana kiransu Kwamitin Amfani da Jama'a. Ga Ingila da Wales, an kirkiro hukumar kula da ruwa (OFWAT) a matsayin wani ɓangare na mallakar Masana'antar ruwa a shekarar 1989. A kasashe masu tasowa da yawa, an kirkiro hukumomin kula da ruwa a cikin shekarun 1990 tare da kokarin kara yawan masu zaman kansu. (don ƙarin bayani game da hukumomin sarrafawa a Latin Amurka, alal misali, don Allah duba Ruwa da tsabta a Latin Amurka da ƙungiyar yanki na hukumomin sarrafa ruwa ADERASA . ^[5] )

Kasashe da yawa ba su da hukumomin sarrafa ruwa. A cikin waɗannan ƙasashe masu ba da sabis suna sarrafawa kai tsaye ta karamar hukuma, ko gwamnatin ƙasa. Wannan shi ne, alal misali, lamarin a cikin ƙasashen nahiyar Turai, a China da Indiya. ^{[dubious – discuss]}

Bayar da sabis

Masu ba da sabis na samar da ruwa, waɗanda galibi kayan aiki ne, sun bambanta da juna dangane da iyakokin yankin su dangane da iyakokinsu na gudanarwa; iyakokin bangarorin su; tsarin mallakar su; da shirye-shiryen shugabancin su.

Yankin ƙasa

Yawancin masu amfani da ruwa suna ba da sabis a cikin birni ɗaya, gari ko gari. Koyaya, a ƙasashe da yawa, ƙauyuka sun haɗu a cikin yanki ko ƙauyuka ko ƙauyukan ƙauyuka da yawa don amfana daga tattalin arzikin sikelin. A cikin Amurka waɗannan na iya ɗaukar nau'ikan gundumomi na musamman waɗanda zasu iya samun ikon haraji mai zaman kansa. Misali na mai amfani da ruwa mai yawa a Amurka shine WASA, mai amfani da Washington, DC da yankuna daban-daban a jihar Maryland. Har ila yau, kayan aiki masu yawa sun zama ruwan dare a Jamus, inda aka san su da "Zweckverbaende", a Faransa da Italiya.

A wasu ƙasashe na tarayya, akwai masu ba da sabis na ruwa da ke rufe mafi yawan ko duk birane da garuruwa a cikin jihar, kamar a duk jihohin Brazil da wasu jihohi a Mexico (duba Ruwa da tsabta a Mexico). A Ingila da Wales, ana samar da ruwa da magudanar ruwa kusan gaba ɗaya ta hanyar kamfanoni goma na yanki. Wasu ƙananan ƙasashe, musamman ƙasashe masu tasowa, sun kafa masu ba da sabis waɗanda ke rufe duk ƙasar ko aƙalla yawancin biranen da manyan garuruwa. Irin waɗannan masu ba da sabis na ƙasa sun fi yawa a Yammacin Afirka da Amurka ta Tsakiya, amma kuma sun kasance, alal misali, a Tunisiya, Jordan da Uruguay (duba kuma samar da ruwa da tsabta a Uruguay). A yankunan karkara, inda kusan rabin yawan jama'ar duniya ke rayuwa, ayyukan ruwa galibi ba sa bayarwa ta hanyar kayan aiki, amma ta ƙungiyoyin al'umma waɗanda yawanci ke rufe ƙauyuka ɗaya ko wasu lokuta da yawa.

Yankin da ke tattare da shi

Wasu kayan aikin ruwa suna ba da sabis na samar da ruwa kawai, yayin da sharar gida ke ƙarƙashin alhakin wani bangare daban. Wannan misali ne a Tunisiya. Koyaya, a mafi yawan lokuta masu amfani da ruwa suna ba da sabis na tsabtace ruwa da tsabtace ruwa. A wasu birane ko ƙasashe masu amfani da wutar lantarki suma suna rarraba wutar lantarki. A wasu lokuta irin waɗannan kayan aiki da yawa suna tattara sharar gida da kuma samar da sabis na tarho na gida. Ana iya samun misali na irin wannan hadadden kayan aiki a birnin Medellín na Colombia. Ana iya samun kayan aiki da ke samar da ruwa, tsaftacewa da wutar lantarki a Frankfurt, Jamus (Mainova), a Casablanca, Morocco da Gabon a Yammacin Afirka. Amfani da yawa suna ba da wasu fa'idodi kamar biyan kuɗi na yau da kullun da kuma zaɓi don tallafawa ayyukan ruwa tare da kudaden shiga daga tallace-tallace na wutar lantarki, idan doka ta ba da izini.

Mallaka da shirye-shiryen mulki

Masu samar da ruwa na iya zama na jama'a, masu zaman kansu, gauraye ko hadin gwiwa. Yawancin ayyukan samar da ruwa a cikin birane a duniya ana ba da su ne daga hukumomin jama'a. Kamar yadda Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange (2002) ya bayyana, "Matsalar ruwa da ke shafar mutane da yawa galibi rikicin mulki ne - ba na karancin ruwa ba. " Gabatar da farashin farashi tare da tallafi tsakanin masu arziki da matalauta masu amfani shine muhimmiyar gyare-gyare na mulki don rage matakan Unccounted-for Water (UAW) da kuma samar da kudaden da ake buƙata don fadada hanyar sadarwa ga waɗancan gidajen da ba su da ba su ba su da alaƙa. Shirye-shiryen haɗin gwiwa tsakanin jama'a da masu zaman kansu na iya taka muhimmiyar rawa don cimma wannan burin.

Kasuwanci masu zaman kansu

Kimanin kashi 10 cikin 100 na samar da ruwa a birane ana bayar da su ne ta kamfanoni masu zaman kansu ko kamfanoni masu rikitarwa, yawanci a karkashin izini, haya ko kwangilar gudanarwa. A karkashin wadannan shirye-shiryen kwangilar sabis na ruwa, jama'a da ke da alhakin samar da sabis na doka suna ba da wakilai ga wasu ko duk fannoni na samar da sabis ga mai ba da sabis mai zaman kansa na tsawon lokaci wanda yawanci ya kasance daga shekaru 4 zuwa 30. Jama'a suna ci gaba da mallakar kadarorin. Wadannan shirye-shiryen sun zama ruwan dare a Faransa da Spain. Sai kawai a cikin 'yan sassa na tsarin samar da ruwa na duniya an sayar da su gaba ɗaya ga kamfanoni masu zaman kansu (masu zaman kansu), kamar a Ingila da Wales da kuma Chile. Kamfanonin ruwa masu zaman kansu mafi girma a duniya sune Suez da Veolia Environnement daga Faransa; Aguas de Barcelona daga Spain; da Thames Water daga Burtaniya, dukansu suna aiki a duniya (duba hanyoyin haɗi zuwa gidan yanar gizon waɗannan kamfanoni a ƙasa). A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, birane da yawa sun koma bangaren jama'a a cikin wani tsari da ake kira "remunicipalization".

Bayar da ruwa na jama'a

Kashi 90% na samar da ruwa a birane da ayyukan tsabta a halin yanzu suna cikin bangaren jama'a. Gwamnati ko hukumomin gida ne ke mallakar su, ko kuma ƙungiyoyi ko hadin gwiwa. Suna gudana ba tare da manufar riba ba amma sun dogara ne akan tsarin samar da abin da aka dauka na jama'a. A mafi yawan ƙasashe masu matsakaicin matsakaicin kuɗi da ƙananan masu samar da ruwa na jama'a na iya zama marasa inganci sakamakon tsangwama na siyasa, wanda ke haifar da yawan ma'aikata da ƙarancin aiki. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Abin mamaki shine, manyan masu hasara daga wannan tsari na hukuma sune matalautan birane a cikin waɗannan ƙasashe. Saboda ba a haɗa su da hanyar samar da ruwa ba, sun ƙare suna biyan kuɗi da yawa a kowace lita na ruwa fiye da yin gidaje masu wadata da aka haɗa da hanyar sadarwar waɗanda ke amfana daga tallafin da suke karɓa daga kayan aikin da ke haifar da asarar.

Gaskiyar cewa har yanzu muna da nisa daga samun damar samun ruwa mai tsabta da tsabtace muhalli ya nuna cewa hukumomin ruwa na jama'a, a halin da suke ciki yanzu, ba sa aiki sosai.Duk da haka wasu suna samun nasara sosai kuma suna tsara mafi kyawun hanyoyin gudanar da jama'a. Kamar yadda Ryutaro Hashimoto, tsohon Firayim Ministan Japan, ya lura: "Ayyukan ruwa na jama'a a halin yanzu suna samar da fiye da kashi 90 cikin 100 na samar da ruwa a duniya.

Shirye-shiryen Gudanarwa

Shirye-shiryen gudanarwa don masu amfani da jama'a da masu zaman kansu na iya ɗaukar nau'o'i da yawa (Kurian da McCarney, 2010). Shirye-shiryen gudanarwa sun bayyana dangantakar da ke tsakanin mai ba da sabis, masu mallakarta, abokan cinikinta da hukumomin sarrafawa. Suna ƙayyade ikon cin gashin kai na mai ba da sabis kuma ta haka ne ikon kula da kadarorinta, faɗaɗa ayyuka, jawo hankalin ma'aikatan da suka cancanta, kuma a ƙarshe don samar da ayyuka masu inganci. Muhimman al'amuran shirye-shiryen gudanarwa sune yadda mahaɗin da ke kula da samar da ayyuka ya keɓe daga shiga tsakani na siyasa; da kuma ko akwai bayyane umarni da niyyar siyasa don ba da damar mai ba da sabis ya dawo da duk ko aƙalla mafi yawan kuɗin ta hanyar haraji da riƙe waɗannan kudaden shiga. Idan samar da ruwa alhakin sashen ne wanda aka haɗa shi a cikin gudanarwar birni, gari ko karamar hukuma, akwai haɗarin cewa ana karkatar da kudaden shiga don wasu dalilai. A wasu lokuta, akwai kuma haɗarin cewa ana nada ma'aikata galibi a kan dalilai na siyasa maimakon bisa ga takardun shaidarsu.

Daidaitawa

Matsayi na kasa da kasa don tsarin samar da ruwa an rufe su ta hanyar International Classification of Standards (ICS) 91.140.60. ^[6]

Kwatanta aikin masu samar da ruwa da tsabta

Kwatanta aikin masu samar da ruwa da tsabtace muhalli (amfani) ana buƙatar, saboda bangaren yana ba da iyakantaccen iko don gasa kai tsaye (haɗin kai na halitta). Kamfanoni da ke aiki a kasuwannin gasa suna ƙarƙashin matsin lamba don yin juna. Sau da yawa ana kare kayan aikin ruwa daga wannan matsin lamba, kuma yana nunawa akai-akai: wasu kayan aiki suna kan hanyar ingantawa mai ɗorewa, amma wasu da yawa suna ci gaba da fadawa bayan mafi kyawun aiki. Benchmarking aikin kayan aiki yana ba da damar motsa gasar, kafa manufofi na ainihi don ingantawa da ƙirƙirar matsin lamba don kamawa da kayan aiki mafi kyau. Bayani game da ma'auni don kayan aiki na ruwa da tsabtace muhalli ana bayar da shi ta hanyar Cibiyar Benchmarking ta Duniya don Ruwa da Wutar Lantarki.

Abubuwan kudi

Kudin da aka kashe da kuma kudade

Kudin samar da ruwa ya kunshi, har zuwa babban matsayi, tsayayyen farashi (farashin kuɗi da farashin ma'aikata) kuma kawai zuwa ƙaramin farashi mai canzawa wanda ya dogara da adadin ruwan da aka cinye (musamman makamashi da sunadarai). Cikakken farashin samar da ruwa a cikin birane a cikin ƙasashe masu tasowa kusan US $ 1-2 ne a kowace cubic mita dangane da farashin gida da matakan Amfani da ruwa na gida. Kudin tsaftacewa (kayan shara da Maganin ruwa mai guba) wani US $ 1-2 ne a kowace cubic mita. Wadannan farashin sun ɗan ragu a kasashe masu tasowa. A duk faɗin duniya, wani ɓangare ne kawai na waɗannan farashin galibi ana biyan kuɗi ga masu amfani, sauran ana samun kuɗi ta hanyar tallafi kai tsaye ko kai tsaye daga gwamnatocin gida, yanki ko ƙasa (duba sashi game da haraji). ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Baya ga tallafin samar da ruwa ana samun kudade ta hanyar kudaden shiga na ciki da kuma ta hanyar bashi. Kudin bashi na iya ɗaukar nau'in bashi daga Bankunan kasuwanci, bashi daga cibiyoyin hada-hadar kudi na duniya kamar Bankin Duniya da bankunan ci gaban yanki (a cikin yanayin kasashe masu tasowa), da kuma jingina (a cikin wasu kasashe masu ci gaba da wasu kasashe na tsakiya). ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Haraji

Kusan dukkanin masu ba da sabis a duniya suna cajin farashi don dawo da wani ɓangare na farashin su. Dangane da kimantawa ta Bankin Duniya matsakaicin farashin ruwa na duniya shine US $ 0.53 a kowace cubic mita. A cikin ƙasashe masu tasowa matsakaicin farashin shine US $ 1.04, yayin da kawai US $ 0.11 ne a cikin ƙasashe mafi talauci. Ana samun mafi ƙasƙanci a ƙasashe masu tasowa a Kudancin Asiya (ma'auni na US $ 0.09/m3), yayin da mafi girma ana samun su a Latin Amurka (US $ 0.41/m3). ^[7] An tantance bayanai don birane 132. Kudin an kiyasta shi ne don matakin amfani na mita 15 a kowane wata. Ƙananan kayan aiki suna dawo da duk farashin su. Dangane da wannan binciken Bankin Duniya kawai 30% na kayan aiki a duniya, kuma kawai 50% na kayan aiki ne a kasashe masu tasowa, suna samar da isasshen kudaden shiga don rufe aiki, kiyayewa da kuma farashin kuɗi. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Dangane da wani binciken da NUS Consulting ya gudanar a shekara ta 2006, matsakaicin farashin ruwa da magudanar ruwa a cikin ƙasashe 14 galibi OECD ban da VAT ya bambanta tsakanin US $ 0.66 a kowace cubic mita a Amurka da daidai da US $ 2.25 a kowace cubian mita a Denmark.^[8] Koyaya, amfani da ruwa ya fi girma a Amurka fiye da Turai. Sabili da haka, takardun ruwa na zama na iya zama iri ɗaya, koda kuwa farashin kowane ɗayan amfani yana da girma a Turai fiye da Amurka. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Wata iyali ta musamman a Gabashin Gabashin Amurka ta biya tsakanin US $ 30 da US $ 70 a kowane wata don ruwa da ayyukan shara a shekara ta 2005.

A cikin kasashe masu tasowa, farashin yawanci ya fi dacewa da rufe farashin. Kudin ruwa na gida don amfani da nau'ikan cubic mita 15 a kowane wata ya bambanta tsakanin kasa da US $ 1 da US $ 12 a kowane wata.

Farashin ruwa da tsabtace muhalli, wanda kusan koyaushe ake biyan kuɗi tare, na iya ɗaukar nau'o'i daban-daban. Inda aka shigar da mita, farashin yawanci suna da yawa (ta hanyar amfani), wani lokacin ana haɗa su da karamin cajin kowane wata. Idan babu mita, ana cajin farashi ko tsayayyen farashi - wanda ke da 'yanci daga ainihin amfani - ana cajin su. A cikin ƙasashe masu tasowa, farashin yawanci iri ɗaya ne ga nau'ikan masu amfani daban-daban da kuma matakan amfani daban-ара.

A cikin kasashe masu tasowa, halin da ake ciki sau da yawa ana nuna shi ta hanyar tallafi tare da niyyar yin ruwa mai araha ga masu amfani da ƙananan ƙididdigar zama waɗanda ake zaton matalauta ne. Misali, masu amfani da masana'antu da kasuwanci galibi ana cajin farashi mafi girma fiye da masu amfani da jama'a ko masu zama. Har ila yau, masu amfani da ma'auni galibi ana cajin farashi mafi girma don matakan amfani mafi girma (karin farashi mai toshewa). Koyaya, tallafin giciye tsakanin masu amfani da zama ba koyaushe ba ne suka kai ga burinsu. Idan aka ba da ƙananan farashin ruwa a kasashe masu tasowa har ma a matakan amfani mafi girma, yawancin tallafin amfani suna amfana da sassan da suka fi arziki.^[9] Har ila yau, manyan farashin masana'antu da kasuwanci na iya samar da karfafawa ga waɗannan masu amfani don samar da ruwa daga wasu tushe ban da mai amfani (maɓuɓɓugar ruwa, tankunan ruwa) kuma ta haka ne ya lalata tushen kudaden shiga na mai amfani.

Zuba jari da ake buƙata a ƙasashe masu tasowa

Ruwa da tsabtace muhalli suna buƙatar babban adadin saka hannun jari a cikin ababen more rayuwa kamar hanyoyin sadarwar bututu, tashoshin famfo da ayyukan tsabtace ruwa. An kiyasta cewa a kasashe masu tasowa dole ne a saka hannun jari na akalla dala biliyan 200 a kowace shekara don maye gurbin tsofaffin kayan aikin ruwa don tabbatar da wadata, rage yawan leakage da kare ingancin ruwa.

Kulawar kasa da kasa ta mayar da hankali kan bukatun Kasashe masu tasowa. Don saduwa da Manufofin Ci Gaban Millennium na rage rabin yawan jama'a da ba su da damar samun ruwan sha mai aminci da tsabtace muhalli ta 2015, saka hannun jari na shekara-shekara na yanzu akan tsari na US $ 10 zuwa US $ 15 biliyan zai buƙaci a ninka shi kusan sau biyu. Wannan bai haɗa da saka hannun jari da ake buƙata don kula da ababen more rayuwa na yanzu ba.

Da zarar ababen more rayuwa sun kasance, tsarin samar da ruwa da tsabtace muhalli yana haifar da tsada mai yawa don rufe ma'aikata, makamashi, sunadarai, kulawa da sauran kudade. Tushen kuɗi don biyan waɗannan babban birnin da farashin aiki sune ainihin kuɗin mai amfani, kudaden jama'a ko wasu haɗuwa da su biyu. Har ila yau, yana da mahimmanci a yi la'akari da sassauci na tsarin samar da ruwa.^[10]^[11]

Mita

Ana amfani da ma'auni na samar da ruwa ta hanyar daya ko da yawa daga cikin manufofi huɗu. Na farko, yana ba da ƙarfafawa don kiyaye ruwa wanda ke kare albarkatun ruwa (mahimmanci na muhalli). Na biyu, yana iya jinkirta fadada tsarin tsada kuma yana adana makamashi da farashin sinadarai (ma'anar tattalin arziki). Na uku, yana ba da damar amfani don gano asarar rarraba (ma'anar fasaha). Na huɗu, yana bawa masu samarwa damar cajin ruwa bisa ga amfani, wanda mutane da yawa ke ɗauka a matsayin hanya mafi kyau don rarraba farashin samar da ruwa ga masu amfani. Ana ɗaukar ma'auni mai kyau a cikin samar da ruwa kuma yana da yawa a ƙasashe masu tasowa, ban da Ƙasar Ingila. A cikin kasashe masu tasowa an kiyasta cewa rabin dukkan tsarin samar da ruwa na birane an auna su kuma yanayin yana ƙaruwa. ^{[ana buƙatar hujja]}^{[citation needed]}

Ana karanta Mita na ruwa ta hanyar daya daga cikin hanyoyin da yawa:

abokin ciniki na ruwa ya rubuta karatun mita kuma ya aika a cikin katin gidan waya tare da wannan bayanin zuwa sashen ruwa;
abokin ciniki na ruwa ya rubuta karatun mita kuma yana amfani da tsarin wayar salula don canja wurin wannan bayanin zuwa sashen ruwa.
abokin ciniki na ruwa ya shiga cikin gidan yanar gizon kamfanin samar da ruwa, ya shiga adireshin, ID na mita da karatun mita [1] Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine An adana shi
mai karatu na mita ya zo wurin kuma ya shiga karatun mita a cikin kwamfuta mai hannu.
ana maimaita karatun mita a kan na'urar nuni da aka ɗora a waje da wurin, inda mai karatun mita ya rubuta su;
ana haɗa ƙaramin rediyo zuwa mita don watsa karatun ta atomatik ga masu karɓa masu dacewa a cikin kwamfutocin hannu, motocin amfani ko masu tarawa da aka rarraba
Ana haɗa ƙaramin kwamfuta zuwa mita wanda zai iya buga ko karɓar kiran waya na atomatik wanda ke ba da karatu ga tsarin kwamfuta na tsakiya.

Yawancin birane suna ƙara shigar da tsarin Karatun mita na atomatik (AMR) don hana zamba, don rage yawan aiki da farashin alhakin da kuma inganta sabis na abokin ciniki da gamsuwa.

Samun dama a duniya

Ruwa da aka kawo ta hanyar babbar mota a Kolhapur, Maharashtra, Indiya

Shipot, tushen ruwan sha na yau da kullun a Dzyhivka, Ukraine

Page 'Drinking water#Global access' not found

Tarihi

A cikin tarihi, mutane sun kirkiro tsarin don samun ruwa da amfani da ruwa ya fi dacewa. Rayuwa a yankuna masu tsaka-tsaki, Farisawa na dā a cikin karni na 1 BC sun yi amfani da tsarin qanat don samun damar samun ruwa a cikin duwatsu. Roma ta farko tana da famfo na cikin gida, ma'ana tsarin hanyoyin ruwa da bututu waɗanda suka ƙare a gidaje da kuma rijiyoyin jama'a da maɓuɓɓugar ruwa don mutane su yi amfani da su.

Har zuwa zamanin Haskakawa, an sami ci gaba kaɗan a cikin samar da ruwa da tsabtace jiki kuma an yi watsi da ƙwarewar injiniya na Romawa a duk faɗin Turai. Ya kasance a cikin karni na 18 cewa yawan jama'a da ke ƙaruwa da sauri ya haifar da haɓaka a cikin kafa hanyoyin samar da ruwa masu zaman kansu a Landan.^[12] Kayan aikin samar da ruwa na London sun bunkasa a cikin ƙarni da yawa daga farkon hanyoyin zamani, ta hanyar manyan ayyukan magani na ƙarni na 19 da aka gina don mayar da martani ga barazanar kwalara, zuwa manyan tafkuna na zamani. An ba da izini na farko a cikin 1845 ta hanyar Guest da Chrimes, wani ma'aikatar tagulla a Rotherham.^[13]

Amfani na farko da aka rubuta na matattarar yashi don tsarkake samar da ruwa ya kasance a 1804, lokacin da mai mallakar bleachery a Paisley, Scotland, John Gibb, ya shigar da matattarar gwaji, yana sayar da abin da ba a so ga jama'a. Injiniya James Simpson ne ya shigar da samar da ruwa na farko a duniya don Kamfanin Chelsea Waterworks a London a cikin 1829. Ayyukan maganin ruwa ba da daɗewa ba ya zama al'ada, kuma kyawawan halaye na tsarin sun bayyana sosai bayan binciken likitan John Snow a lokacin barkewar kwalara ta Broad Street ta 1854 ya nuna rawar da samar da ruwa ke takawa wajen yada annobar kwalara.^[14]

Ta hanyar ƙasa

Samfuri:World topic

Dubi kuma

Hakkin ɗan adam ga ruwa da tsabta
Amfani da ruwa ba a zama a Amurka
Amfani da ruwa a cikin gida a Amurka da Kanada
Rashin amfani da ruwa
Ma'adanai na ruwa
Rashin ruwa
Tsaro na ruwa
Ta'addanci na samar da ruwa

Manazarta

↑ "Public Supply Water Use". www.usgs.gov (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-10-03.
↑ DeOreo, William B.; Mayer, Peter; Dziegielewski, Benedykt; Kiefer, Jack (2016). "Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2". Water Research Foundation.
↑ Gleick, Peter. "Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 June 2013. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
↑ Dagdeviren, Hulya; Robertson, Simon A. (2011-06-02). "Access to Water in the Slums of Sub-Saharan Africa". Development Policy Review. 29 (4): 485–505. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7679.2011.00543.x. ISSN 0950-6764. S2CID 153624406.
↑ "Aderasa | Asociacion de Entes Reguladores de Agua y Saneamiento de las Americas".
↑ International Organization for Standardization. "91.140.60: Water supply systems". Retrieved 1 March 2008.
↑ "Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies?". The World Bank. 2006. p. 21. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
↑ "NUS Consulting 2005-2006 International Water Report & Cost Survey" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 December 2006. Retrieved 17 December 2006. The study covered Denmark, Germany, the UK, Belgium, France, The Netherlands, Italy, Finland, Australia, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, Canada and the US. The methodology for assessing tariffs may be different from the methodology of the World Bank study cited above. The report means by "costs" average tariffs and not the costs of the utility, which can be lower or higher than average tariffs
↑ "Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies?". The World Bank. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
↑ Fawcett, William; Hughes, Martin; Krieg, Hannes; Albrecht, Stefan; Vennström, Anders (2012). "Flexible strategies for long-term sustainability under uncertainty". Building Research. 40 (5): 545–557. Bibcode:2012BuRI...40..545F. doi:10.1080/09613218.2012.702565. S2CID 110278133.
↑ Zhang, S.X.; V. Babovic (2012). "A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty". Journal of Hydroinformatics. 14 (1): 13–29. doi:10.2166/hydro.2011.078. S2CID 54548372. SSRN 2491961.
↑ "Brief History During the Snow Era". www.ph.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2021-02-26.
↑ "A Little About Tap History". Archived from the original on 9 January 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
↑ Concepts and practice of humanitarian medicine (2008) Par S. William Gunn, M. Masellis ISBN 0-387-72263-7

Haɗin waje

Wikimedia Commons on Samar da Ruwa

[1] "Public Supply Water Use". www.usgs.gov (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-10-03.

[2] DeOreo, William B.; Mayer, Peter; Dziegielewski, Benedykt; Kiefer, Jack (2016). "Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2". Water Research Foundation.

[3] Gleick, Peter. "Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 June 2013. Retrieved 17 March 2012.

[4] Dagdeviren, Hulya; Robertson, Simon A. (2011-06-02). "Access to Water in the Slums of Sub-Saharan Africa". Development Policy Review. 29 (4): 485–505. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7679.2011.00543.x. ISSN 0950-6764. S2CID 153624406.

[5] "Aderasa | Asociacion de Entes Reguladores de Agua y Saneamiento de las Americas".

[91wss-6] International Organization for Standardization. "91.140.60: Water supply systems". Retrieved 1 March 2008.

[7] "Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies?". The World Bank. 2006. p. 21. Retrieved 30 October 2011.

[8] "NUS Consulting 2005-2006 International Water Report & Cost Survey" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 December 2006. Retrieved 17 December 2006. The study covered Denmark, Germany, the UK, Belgium, France, The Netherlands, Italy, Finland, Australia, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, Canada and the US. The methodology for assessing tariffs may be different from the methodology of the World Bank study cited above. The report means by "costs" average tariffs and not the costs of the utility, which can be lower or higher than average tariffs

[9] "Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies?". The World Bank. Retrieved 30 October 2011.

[10] Fawcett, William; Hughes, Martin; Krieg, Hannes; Albrecht, Stefan; Vennström, Anders (2012). "Flexible strategies for long-term sustainability under uncertainty". Building Research. 40 (5): 545–557. Bibcode:2012BuRI...40..545F. doi:10.1080/09613218.2012.702565. S2CID 110278133.

[11] Zhang, S.X.; V. Babovic (2012). "A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty". Journal of Hydroinformatics. 14 (1): 13–29. doi:10.2166/hydro.2011.078. S2CID 54548372. SSRN 2491961.

[ph.ucla.edu-12] "Brief History During the Snow Era". www.ph.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2021-02-26.

[13] "A Little About Tap History". Archived from the original on 9 January 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2012.

[14] Concepts and practice of humanitarian medicine (2008) Par S. William Gunn, M. Masellis ISBN 0-387-72263-7

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