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Tarihin samar da ruwan sha da ayyukan tsaftar muhalli

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Tarihin samar da ruwan sha da ayyukan tsaftar muhalli
aspect of history (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Fuskarmakewayi, Banɗaki da water supply and sanitation (en) Fassara
Qanat a Kashan da ke fitowa a cikin Lambun Fin; an yi amon cewa ya yi wa yankin Sialk na Iran hidima na tsawon dubban shekaru.

Tun lokacin da al'ummomin da ke zaune waje guda suka bayyana (sau da yawa sakamakon haɓakar aikin gona), matsugunan bil'adama sun fuskanci ƙalubale masu alaƙa na samar da tsafta da kuma samun tsaftataccen ruwa mai inganci. A duk inda albarkatun ruwa, ababen more rayuwa, ko tsarin tsaftace muhalli suka gaza, cututtuka suna yaɗuwa kuma mutane suna rashin lafiya ko mutuwa kafin lokaci.

Astronaut Jack Lousma yana wanka a sararin samaniya, 1974

Manyan matsugunan bil'adama a farko sun sami damar haɓaka ne kawai a inda ake samun wadataccen ruwan saman mai daɗi—misali, a yankunan da ke kusa da koguna ko maɓuɓɓugar ruwa na ƙasa. Bayan lokaci, al'ummomi daban-daban sun ƙirƙiri tsare-tsare iri-iri waɗanda suka sauƙaƙa samun tsaftataccen ruwa ko zubar da (kuma, daga baya, har ma da tace) ruwan datti.[1]

A mafi yawan sassan wannan tarihi, tace ruwan datti ya ƙunshi kwashe ɗanyen ruwan datti ne zuwa ga ruwa na halitta—kamar kogi ko teku—inda bayan an zubar da shi, zai gauraye sannan daga ƙarshe ya baje.

Cikin tsawon dubban shekaru, ci gaban fasaha ya ƙara nisan da za a iya jigilar ruwa a aikace sosai. Haka zalika, hanyoyin tace ruwan sha da kuma tace ruwan datti su ma sun inganta.

Samfuri:TOC limit

Kafin Tarihi

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Skara Brae, wani ƙauyen zamanin Neolithic a Orkney, Scotland, tare da abin da wataƙila bayan gida ne mai amfani da ruwa, 3180–2500 BCE

A lokacin zamanin Neolithic, mutane sun haƙa rijiyoyin ruwa na farko na dindindin, inda za a iya cika mazubai a ɗauka da hannu. An gano rijiyoyin da aka haƙa kusan shekaru 8500 BCE a Cyprus,[2] da kuma 6500 BCE a Filin Jezreel.[3] Girman matsugunan mutane ya dogara ne kacokan akan adadin ruwan da ake samu a kusa.

Wani ɗanyen tsarin gida na ruwan sha da na ruwan datti, wanda ya ƙunshi magudanan ruwa na duwatsu guda biyu da aka jera da bawon bishiya, ya bayyana a gidajen Skara Brae da Matsugunin Barnhouse a Orkney tun kusan shekara ta 3000 BCE. Haɗe da wani waje kamar kanti a wasu gidaje a Skara Brae, an ba da shawarar cewa waɗannan wataƙila sun yi aiki a matsayin bayan gida na cikin gida na farko.[4][5][6][7][8]

Ayyukan sake amfani da ruwan datti

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Sake amfani da ruwan datti wata tsohuwar al'ada ce da ke da alaƙa da haɓakar samar da tsaftar muhalli.[9] An yi amfani da ruwan datti na gari da ba a tace ba na tsawon ƙarni da yawa da manufar karkatar da datti na ɗan adam zuwa wajen matsugunan birane. Haka zalika, amfani da ruwan datti na gida a jikin ƙasa tsohuwar al'ada ce kuma sananniya, wacce ta ratsa matakan haɓakawa daban-daban.

Ruwan datti na gida an yi amfani da shi don ban ruwa ta tsoffin wayewar kai (misali Mesopotamian, wayewar kofarmu ta Indus, da wayewar Minoan) tun zamanin Bronze Age Samfuri:Avoid wrap.[10] Bayan haka, wayewar Hellenic kuma daga baya Romawa sun yi amfani da ruwan datti don zubarwa, ban ruwa, da takin zamani a yankunan da ke kewaye da birane (misali Athens da Rome).[11][12][13]

Zamanin Bronze da Farkon Iron Age

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Tsohuwar Amurka

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A tsohuwar Peru, mutanen Nazca sun yi amfani da tsarin rijiyoyin da ke da alaƙa da juna da kuma magudanan ruwa na ƙarƙashin ƙasa da ake kira puquios.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Mayans sune wayewar kai ta uku mafi daɗewa da suka yi amfani da tsarin famfo na cikin gida ta amfani da ruwa mai ƙarfin matsa lamba.[14]

Tsohuwar Gabas ta Tsakiya

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Mesopotamia

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Mutanen Mesopotamia sun gabatar da bututun datti na yumbu kusan shekara ta 4000 BCE, inda aka gano misalan farko a Haikalin Bel a Nippur da kuma a Eshnunna,[15] waɗanda aka yi amfani da su don kwashe ruwan datti daga wurare, da kuma tatar da ruwan sama a cikin rijiyoyi. Birnin Uruk shi ma ya nuna misalan farko na bayan gida da aka gina da tubali, tun daga shekara ta 3200 BCE.[16][17] Daga baya an yi amfani da bututun yumbu a birnin Hattusa na mutanen Hittite.[18] Suna da sassa masu sauƙin cirewa da sauyawa, kuma suna ba da damar tsaftacewa.

Tsohuwar Farisa

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An gina tsarin tsaftar muhalli na farko a cikin Iran ta kafin tarihi kusa da birnin Zabol.[15] An yi amfani da qanats da ab anbars na Farisa don samar da ruwa da sanyaya gari.

Tsohuwar Masar

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A kusan c. 2400 BCE, an gano cewa dala ta Sahure (Pyramid of Sahure) da rukunin haikalin da ke kusa da ita a Abusir suna da tsarin bututun magudanar ruwa na tagulla.[19]

Tsohuwar Gabashin Asiya

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Tsohuwar Sin

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Wani samfurin rijiya na yumbu na ƙasar Sin mai tsarin jan ruwa ta amfani da dabarar pulley, da aka tono daga kabarin Daular Han (202 BCE – 220 CE)

Wasu daga cikin shaidun farko na rijiyoyin ruwa suna ƙasar Sin. Mutanen ƙasar Sin na zamanin Neolithic sun gano tare da yin amfani da ruwan ƙarƙashin ƙasa mai zurfi da aka haƙa don sha.[Ana bukatan hujja] Littafin ƙasar Sin na I Ching (The Book of Changes), wanda asali littafin duba ne na daular Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE), yana ɗauke da bayanin yadda tsoffin mutanen ƙasar Sin suka kula da rijiyoyinsu tare da kare maɓuɓɓugar ruwansu.[20] Shaidun gano abubuwan da tsofaffin takardun ƙasar Sin sun bayyana cewa mutanen ƙasar Sin na kafin tarihi da na dā suna da azanci da ƙwarewar haƙa rijiyoyin ruwa masu zurfi don samun ruwan sha tun shekaru 6000 zuwa 7000 da suka gabata.[Ana bukatan hujja] An yi amon cewa an gina wata rijiya da aka tono a rukunin aikin gano kayan tarihi na Hemedu a lokacin zamanin Neolithic.[21] Rijiyar an yi ta ne da layuka huɗu na katako tare da tsarin murabba'i da aka haɗa da su a saman rijiyar. Wasu rijiyoyin tayal guda sittin ƙarin a kudu maso yammacin Beijing kuma an yi amon an gina su ne kusan shekara ta 600 BCE don sha da ban ruwa.[21][22] An kuma san an yi amfani da tsarin famfo a Gabashin Asiya tun lokacin daulolin Qin da Han na ƙasar Sin.[23]

Wayewar Kofarmu ta Indus

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Wata babbar rijiya da wuraren wanka a Harappa, ragowar matakin ƙarshe na zama a birnin daga 2200 zuwa 1900 BCE
Tsarin ɗakin wanka da bayan gida na gidan sarki, a saman acropolis na Lothal c. 2350 BCE
Wurin wanka da magudanar ruwa na bai-ɗaya, acropolis na Lothal, c. 2350 BCE
Rijiya da magudanar ruwa, acropolis na Lothal, c. 2350 BCE

Wayewar kofarmu ta Indus a Asiya tana nuna alamun farko na samar da ruwa na bai-ɗaya da tsaftar muhalli. Tsarin da Indus ta ƙirƙira da sarrafawa ya haɗa da fasaloli na ci gaba da yawa. Wani misali na musamman shi ne birnin Indus na Lothal (c. 2350 – c. 1810 BCE).[24] A Lothal, gidan sarki yana da nasa wurin wanka da bayan gida na sirri, wanda ke haɗe da buɗaɗɗen magudanar ruwa na kan titi wanda ke fitar da ruwa zuwa mashakar jiragen ruwa na garin. Wasu da yawa daga cikin sauran gidajen acropolis suna da wuraren wanka na tubali da aka goge, waɗanda ke magudana zuwa rufaffen magudanar tubali, wanda aka haɗa da siminti na gypsum, wanda ke bi har zuwa ramin tsotse ruwa (soak pit) a wajen katangar garin, yayin da ƙananan garuruwa ke amfani da tukunyar tsotse ruwa (manyan tukwane da aka binne, masu rami a ƙasa don ba da damar ruwa ya fita), waɗanda daga ƙarshe ake kwashewa da tsaftace su a kai a kai.[25] Ana samun ruwa ne daga rijiyoyi guda biyu a garin, ɗaya a cikin acropolis, ɗayan kuma a gefen mashakar jiragen ruwa.

Yankunan birane na wayewar kofarmu ta Indus sun haɗa da wuraren wanka na jama'a da na sirri.[26] An zubar da ruwan datti ta hanyar magudanar ruwa na ƙarƙashin ƙasa da aka gina da tubali da aka jera daki-daki, kuma an kafa ingantaccen tsarin sarrafa ruwa mai ɗauke da madatsun ruwa masu yawa. A cikin tsarin magudanar ruwa, magudanun ruwa na gidaje sun haɗu da manyan magudanun ruwa na jama'a. Yawancin gine-gine a Mohenjo-daro suna da hawa biyu ko fiye. Ruwa daga rufin gida da ɗakunan wanka na saman bene ana ɗaukar sa ne ta rufaffun bututun terracotta ko buɗaddun magudanun ruwa da ke zubarwa zuwa cikin magudanun ruwan kan titi.[27]

An ga shaidun farko na tsaftar birane a Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, da kuma Rakhigarhi da aka gano kwanan nan na wayewar kofarmu ta Indus. Wannan tsarin birnin ya haɗa da tsarin tsaftar birane na farko a duniya. A cikin birnin, gidaje guda ɗaya ko rukunin gidaje suna samun ruwa ne daga rijiyoyi. Daga ɗakin da alama an keɓance shi don wanka, ana tura ruwan datti zuwa rufaffun magudanun ruwa, waɗanda ke jera a manyan tituna.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Zamanin Tsakiyar da Farkon Zamani

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Nepal

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Mutane suna jiran ruwa daga Manga Hiti a cikin birnin Patan, Nepal

A Nepal, gina hanyoyin ruwa kamar rijiyoyi da ruwan sha ana ɗaukar su a matsayin aikin ibada.[28][29]

An fara samar da tsarin ruwan sha tun aƙalla daga shekara ta 550 AD.[30] Wannan tsarin dhunge dhara ko hiti ya ƙunshi ruwan da ke fita daga duwatsu da aka sassaka, inda ruwa ke gudana ba tare da yankewa ba daga ƙasa. Ana tallafawa da tafkuna da magudanan ruwa da ke samar da hanyar ruwa mai rikitarwa, domin ajiya a lokacin rani da kuma rage matsin ruwan damina. Bayan shigar da tsarin bututun ruwa na zamani tun ƙarshen ƙarni na 19, tsohon tsarin ya lalace kuma wasu sassan sun ɓace har abada.[28][29] Duk da haka, mutane da dama a Nepal har yanzu suna dogara da tsoffin hitis a kullum.[31]

A shekara ta 2008, dhunge dharas na Kwarin Kathmandu sun samar da lita miliyan 2.95 na ruwa a kowace rana.[32]

Daga cikin ruwan duwatsu 389 da aka samu a Kwarin Kathmandu a shekara ta 2010, 233 har yanzu ana amfani da su, suna bauta wa kusan kashi 10% na al’ummar Kathmandu. 68 sun bushe, 45 sun ɓace gaba ɗaya kuma 43 sun haɗu da tsarin ruwan birni maimakon tushen asali.[31]

Duniya ta Musulunci

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Wurin wanka na Comares a Alhambra, Granada, Spain (ƙarni na 14)

Addinin Musulunci yana mai da hankali kan tsabta da tsaftar jiki.[33] Dokokin tsaftar Musulunci tun ƙarni na 7 suna da ƙa’idoji masu tsauri. Taharah (tsarkin ibada) ya haɗa da yin wudu don salloli biyar na yau da kullum, da yin ghusl (wanka), wanda ya sa aka gina wuraren wanka a duk duniya ta Musulunci.[34] Tsarin tsaftar bayan gida na Musulunci kuma yana buƙatar wanke bayan amfani da bayan gida da ruwa, domin tsarki da rage ƙwayoyin cuta.[35]

A cikin Daular Abbasiyya (ƙarni na 8–13), babban birninta Baghdad (Iraq) tana da wuraren wanka 65,000 tare da tsarin magudanan ruwa.[36] Biranen duniya ta Musulunci na Tsakiyar Zamani suna da tsarin ruwan sha da fasahar hydraulic da ke samar da ruwan sha da kuma ruwa mai yawa don wanke-wanke na ibada, musamman a masallatai da hammams (wanka). Birane kamar Baghdad, Córdoba, Fez da Fustat suna da tsarin zubar da shara da magudanan ruwa mai inganci.[37] Birnin Fustat ma yana da gine-ginen bene da yawa (har zuwa bene shida) da flush toilets da aka haɗa da tsarin ruwan sha.[38]

Al-Karaji (953–1029) ya rubuta littafi mai suna The Extraction of Hidden Waters, inda ya bayyana ra’ayoyi na farko kan tsarin ruwa da tace ruwa.[39]

Afirka ta Kudu da Sahara

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A Kilwa Kisiwani, tsarin bututun ruwa ya kasance a cikin gidajen duwatsu na mazauna.[40][41] Fadar Husani Kubwa da sauran gine-ginen masu mulki da masu arziki sun haɗa da alfarma na bututun ruwa a cikin gida.[41]

A Daular Ashanti, bayan gida suna cikin gine-ginen bene biyu da ake wanke su da ruwan zafi mai yawa.

Turai ta Tsakiyar Zamani

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Agkistro Byzantine bath
Wasserkunst da rijiya daga 1602 a Wismar, Jamus

Kiristanci yana mai da hankali kan tsafta.[42] Duk da ƙin amincewa da wankan haɗe na Rumawa da limaman Kirista na farko, coci ta ci gaba da karfafa mabiya su je wuraren wanka.[42] Wannan ya taimaka wajen tsafta da lafiya.[43][44] Cocin ta gina wuraren wanka na jama’a kusa da monasteries da wuraren hajji.[43] Pope Gregory the Great ya karfafa mabiya kan muhimmancin wanka.[44]

Ba daidai ba ne a ce tsafta ta ɓace a Turai bayan rushewar Daular Rum.[45][46] Wuraren wanka na

Tace ruwa

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Sefa ta yashi

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Sir Francis Bacon ya yi ƙoƙarin cire gishiri daga ruwan teku ta hanyar tura ruwan ta cikin sefa ta yashi. Ko da yake gwajinsa bai yi nasara ba, ya alamta farkon sabon sha'awa a cikin wannan fanni.

Amfani na farko da aka rubuta na sefa ta yashi don tsarkake ruwa ya samo asali ne daga shekara ta 1804, lokacin da mamakin wani waje na riga fari a Paisley, Scotland, John Gibb, ya kafa sefa ta gwaji, yana sayar da rarar da ba ya buƙata ga jama'a.[47][48] Wannan hanya an inganta ta a cikin shekaru guda ashirin masu zuwa ta hannun injiniyoyin da ke aiki wa kamfanonin ruwa masu zaman kansu, kuma ta kai kololuwa a samar da ruwan sha na jama'a na farko da aka tace a duniya, wanda injiniya James Simpson ya kafa wa Kamfanin Chelsea Waterworks a London a shekara ta 1829.[49][50] Wannan kafawa ta samar da taceccen ruwa ga kowane mazaunin yankin, kuma an kofi tsarin hanyoyin sadarwar sosai a ko'ina cikin United Kingdom a cikin shekaru masu zuwa.

Dokar Metropolis Water Act 1852 ta kawo ƙa'idoji ga kamfanonin samar da ruwa a London, haɗe da mafi ƙarancin ma'auni na ingancin ruwa a karon farko. Dokar "ta samar da tanadi don tabbatar da samar wa Metropolis ruwa mai tsarki da lafiya", kuma ta buƙaci cewa duk ruwa dole ne a "tace shi yadda ya kamata" fara daga 31 Disamba 1855.[51] Wannan ya biyo baya da doka don gudanar da bincike na dole akan ingancin ruwa, haɗe da cikakken nazarin sinadarai, a shekara ta 1858. Wannan doka ta kafa misali a duniya don irin wannan shisshigi na lafiyar jama'a na jiha a faɗin Turai.[52] An kafa Hukumar Metropolitan Commission of Sewers a lokaci guda, an amshi tacewar ruwa a duk faɗin ƙasar, kuma an kafa sabbin wuraren ɗiban ruwa a kan Thames sama da Teddington Lock. Sefofin matsa lamba na atomatik, inda ake tura ruwa ta ƙarfin matsa lamba ta cikin tsarin tacewa, an ƙirƙiri su a shekara ta 1899 a ƙasar Ingila.[47]

Sanya wa ruwa sinadarin chlorine

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A cikin abin da wataƙila yana ɗaya daga cikin ƙoƙarin farko na amfani da chlorine, William Soper ya yi amfani da sinadarin chlorinated lime don magance ruwan datti da maras lafiya masu zazzabin typhoid suka samar a shekara ta 1879.

A cikin wata takarda da aka buga a shekara ta 1894, Moritz Traube ya ba da shawarar sanya chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) a cikin ruwa a hukumance don sanya shi zama "marar ƙwayoyin cuta." Wasu masu bincike guda biyu sun tabbatar da binciken Traube kuma sun buga takardunsu a shekara ta 1895.[53] An yi ƙoƙarin farko na aiwatar da sanya chlorine a cikin ruwa a masana'antar tace ruwa a shekara ta 1893 a Hamburg, Jamus, kuma a shekara ta 1897 garin Maidstone, a Kent, Ingila, shi ne ya zama na farko da aka tace daukacin ruwansa da chlorine.[54]

An fara sanya chlorine a ruwa na dindindin a shekara ta 1905, lokacin da lalatacciyar sefa ta slow sand filter da gurbataccen ruwa suka haifar da mummunan cutar zazzabin typhoid a Lincoln, Ingila.[55] Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston ya yi amfani da sanya chlorine a cikin ruwa domin tsaida cutar. Tsarin da ya kafa ya tura gaurayayyen sinadarin chloride of lime zuwa cikin ruwan da ake tacewa. Sanya chlorine a cikin ruwa ya taimaka wajen dakatar da cutar kuma a matsayin kariya, an ci gaba da sanya chlorine ɗin har zuwa shekara ta 1911 lokacin da aka kafa sabon tsarin samar da ruwa.[56]

Injin sarrafa Chlorine da hannu (Manual Control Chlorinator) don narkar da chlorine don tsarkake ruwa, farkon ƙarni na 20. Daga 'Chlorination of Water' na Joseph Race, 1918.

Amfani na farko mai dorewa na chlorine a Amurka don kashe ƙwayoyin cuta ya faru ne a shekara ta 1908 a Boonton Reservoir (a kan Kogin Rockaway), wanda ya kasance mafi samar da ruwa ga Jersey City, New Jersey.[57] An sami nasarar sanya chlorine ɗin ta hanyar sarrafa ƙarin gaurayawan sinadarin chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) a ma'aunai na 0.2 zu0.35 ppm. Dr. John L. Leal ne ya ƙirƙiri wannan hanyar tace ruwa kuma George Warren Fuller ne ya tsara masana'antar chlorination ɗin.[58] A cikin 'yan shekaru masu zuwa, an kafa hanyoyin kashe ƙwayoyin cuta da chlorine ta amfani da chloride of lime cikin sauri a tsarin ruwan sha a faɗin duniya.[59]

Dabarar tsarkake ruwan sha ta hanyar amfani da matseccen iskar chlorine mai ruwa-ruwa an ɓullo da ita ne ta hannun wani babban jami'in Burtaniya a Hukumar Indian Medical Service, Vincent B. Nesfield, a shekara ta 1903. Kamar yadda ya bayyana a bayaninsa, "Ya faɗo mini a rai cewa iskar chlorine za ta iya zama mai gamsarwa ... idan za a iya samun hanyoyin da suka dace don amfani da ita.... Tambaya ta gaba mai mahimmanci ita ce yadda za a sanya iskar ta kasance mai sauƙin ɗauka. Ana iya cika wannan ta hanyoyi biyu: Ta hanyar narkar da ita, da adana ta a cikin kwantena na ƙarfe da aka jera da gubar, mai ɗauke da jet tare da kyakkyawan capillary canal, kuma sanye da famfo ko hular kusoshi. Ana buɗe famfon, sannan a sanya silindar a cikin adadin ruwan da ake buƙata. Chlorine yana fita da kumfa, kuma a cikin mintuna goma zuwa sha biyar ruwan zai zama mai lafiya gaba ɗaya. Wannan hanya za ta yi amfani a babban sigo, kamar motocin jigilar ruwa na soja."[60]

Major na Rundunar Sojan Amurka Carl Rogers Darnall, Farfesa na Sinadarai a Makarantar Army Medical School, ya ba da nuni na farko na aiki da wannan a shekara ta 1910. Ba da daɗewa ba bayan haka, Major William J. L. Lyster na Ma'aikatar Army Medical Department ya yi amfani da gaurayawan sinadarin calcium hypochlorite a cikin jakar lilin don magance ruwa. Na tsawon shekaru da yawa, hanyar Lyster ta kasance ma'auni ga dakarun ƙasa na Amurka a fagen fama da sansani, wanda aka aiwatar a cikin sanannen Lyster Bag (wanda kuma ake rubutawa Lister Bag). Wannan aiki ya zama tushen tsarin tsarkake ruwa na birane na zamanin yanzu.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Fluoridation

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Sanya fluoride a cikin ruwa (Water fluoridation) wata al'ada ce ta ƙara fluoride ga ruwan sha don manufar rage rubewar haƙori. Masanin waɗannan karatun farko na fluoride shi ne Dr. H. Trendley Dean, shugaban rukunin Dental Hygiene Unit a National Institutes of Health (NIH). Dean ya fara binciken cutar fluorosis a shekara ta 1931. A ƙarshen shekarun 1930, shi da ma'aikatansa sun yi bincike mai mahimmanci. Wato, matakan fluoride har zuwa 1.0 ppm a cikin ruwan sha ba su haifar da enamel fluorosis ga yawancin mutane ba, kuma kawai ƙananan enamel fluorosis ga ƙarƙashin kaso na mutane. Wannan sakamako ya tura tunanin Dean zuwa sabuwar hanya. Ya tuno daga karatun McKay da Black akan fluorosis cewa enamel ɗin haƙori mai ɗugo-ɗugo yana da juriya na musamman ga rubewa. Dean ya yi mamakin ko ƙara fluoride ga ruwan sha a matakan da ke da lafiya a jiki da kyau zai taimaka wajen yaƙar rubewar haƙori. Wannan hasashe, kamar yadda Dean ya shaida wa abokan aikinsa, zai buƙaci a gwada shi. A shekara ta 1944, Dean ya sami burinsa. A waccan shekarar, Hukumar Birni ta Grand Rapids, Michigan—bayan tattaunawa mai yawa da masu bincike daga PHS, Ma'aikatar Lafiya ta Michigan, da sauran ƙungiyoyin lafiyar jama'a—ta zaɓi ƙara fluoride ga ruwan shanta na jama'a a shekara mai zuwa. A shekara ta 1945, Grand Rapids ta zama birni na farko a duniya da ya sanya fluoride a cikin ruwan shansa. Karatun Grand Rapids na sanya fluoride a cikin ruwa asali an ɗauki nauyinsa ne ta hannun U.S. Surgeon General, amma NIDR ta karɓi ragamar jim kaɗan bayan kafuwar rukunin a shekara ta 1948.[61]

Fahimtar al'amuran kiwon lafiya

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Taswirar asali ta John Snow da ke nuna rukunoni na bullar cutar kwalara a barkewar cutar ta London a shekara ta 1854

Masanin tarihin ƙasar Girka Thucydides (c. 460 – c. 400 BCE) shi ne mutum na farko da ya rubuta, a cikin bayaninsa na annobar Athens, cewa cututtuka za su iya yaɗuwa daga mutumin da ke ɗauke da cuta zuwa ga wasu.

Dokar Mosaic, a cikin littattafai biyar na farko na Littafin Mai Tsarki na Ibraniyawa, tana ɗauke da rubutattun tunani na farko game da yaduwar cuta ta hanyar gaurayawa. Musamman ma, tana ba da umarni kan killace mutane da wanka dangane da cutar kuturta da cututtukan sanyaya.

Wataƙila ra'ayi ɗaya na yaɗuwar cututtuka masu yauki waɗanda ba sa yaɗuwa ta hanyar taɓawa kai tsaye shi ne cewa suna yaɗuwa ta hanyar "iri" kamar spores (da Latin: semina) waɗanda ke nan kuma za su iya baje ta cikin iska. A cikin waƙarsa, De rerum natura (Akan Halitta Abubuwa, c. 56 BCE), mawaƙin Roma Lucretius (c. 99 – c. 55 BCE) ya bayyana cewa duniya tana ɗauke da "iri" daban-daban, waɗanda wasu daga cikinsu za su iya sa mutum rashin lafiya idan an shaka ko an haɗiye su.

Ɗan siyasar Roma Marcus Terentius Varro (c. 116 – c. 27 BCE) ya rubuta, a cikin Rerum rusticarum libri III (Littattafai Uku akan Aikin Gona, 36 BCE): "Dole ne kuma a ɗauki matakan kariya a kusa da kurãre ... saboda ana samun wasu halittu ƙanana waɗanda idanu ba za su iya gani ba, waɗanda ke shawagi a iska kuma suna shiga jiki ta baki da hanci, kuma a can ne suke haifar da miyagun cututtuka."

Likitan ƙasar Girka Galen (129 CE – c. 216 CE) ya yi hasashe a cikin littafinsa On Initial Causes (c. 175 CE) cewa wasu marasa lafiya na iya samun "irin zazzabi". A cikin littafinsa On the Different Types of Fever (c. 175 CE), Galen ya yi hasashen cewa annoba tana yaɗuwa ne ta hanyar "wasu irin annoba", waɗanda ke cikin iska. Kuma a cikin Epidemics (c. 176 – c. 178 CE), Galen ya bayyana cewa marasa lafiya na iya fuskantar komawar cuta lokacin samun sauƙi daga zazzabi saboda wasu "irin cuta" suna ɓoye a jikinsu, wanda zai haifar da sake dawowar cutar idan marasa lafiya ba su bi tsarin maganin likita ba.

Masanin fiƙihu Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari (c. 1253 – 1336), yayin da yake tattaunawa game da abinci da tsaftar Musulunci, ya ba da shawara da gargaɗi game da ƙazanta da ke ɓata ruwa, abinci, da tufafi, kuma za su iya yaɗuwa ta hanyar samar da ruwa.[62]

Tun kafin bincike ya tabbatar da ra'ayin ƙwayoyin cuta na haifar da rashin lafiya (germ theory of disease), ko wata ingantacciyar fahimta ta yanayin ruwa a matsayin abin jigilar cututtuka, tsofaffin amonai sun yi gargaɗi game da shan ruwa haka kawai, inda suka gwammace abubuwan sha da aka sarrafa kamar giya, inabi da shayi. Misali, a cikin jerin ayarin rakuma da suka tsallake Tsakiyar Asiya ta Hanyar Silki (Silk Road), mai bincike Owen Lattimore ya lura (a shekara ta 1928), "Dalilin da ya sa muke shan shayi mai yawa shi ne saboda gurbataccen ruwa. Ruwa shi kaɗai, ba tare da an tafasa shi ba, ba a taɓa shan sa. Akwai camfi cewa yana haifar da kuraje a ƙafafu."[63]

Ɗaya daga cikin fahimtar farko ta cututtukan da ke yaɗuwa ta ruwa a Turai ta samo asali ne a lokacin ƙarni na 19, lokacin da juyin juya halin masana'antu (Industrial Revolution) ya mamaye Turai.[64][65]

Cututtukan da ke yaɗuwa ta ruwa, kamar kwalara, an taɓa yin bayaninsu ba daidai ba ta hanyar ra'ayin miasma (miasma theory), ra'ayin cewa gurbatacciyar iska tana haifar da yaɗuwar cututtuka.[66][65] Sai dai kuma, mutane sun fara samun alaƙa tsakanin ingancin ruwa da cututtukan da ke yaɗuwa ta ruwa, wanda hakan ya kai ga hanyoyin tsarkake ruwa daban-daban, kamar tacewa da yashi da kuma sanya chlorine a cikin ruwan shansu.[66]

Mambobin farko na fannin microscopy, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek da Robert Hooke, sun yi amfani da sabon na'urar microscope da aka ƙirƙira don lura a karon farko akan ƙananan sassa na kayan da ke yawo a cikin ruwa, wanda hakan ya kafa harsashi ga fahimtar nan gaba ta ƙwayoyin cuta na ruwa da cututtukan da ke yaɗuwa ta ruwa.[67]

A cikin ƙarni na 19, Burtaniya ta kasance cibiyar haɓakar birane cikin sauri, kuma a sakamakon haka, matsalolin kiwon lafiya da tsafta da dama sun bayyana, misali barkewar cutar kwalara da annoba. Wannan ya sa Burtaniya ta taka rawar gani sosai wajen haɓaka kiwon lafiyar jama'a.[66] Kafin gano alaƙar da ke tsakanin gurbataccen ruwan sha da cututtuka, kamar kwalara da sauran cututtukan da ke yaɗuwa ta ruwa, an yi amfani da ra'ayin miasma don ba da hujjar barkewar waɗannan cututtuka.[66] Ra'ayin miasma shi ne ra'ayin cewa wasu cututtuka da rashin lafiya sakamakon "miyagun iska" ne.[68] Binciken da likita John Snow ya gudanar a United Kingdom a lokacin barkewar cutar kwalara ta Broad Street a shekara ta 1854 ya fayyace alaƙar da ke tsakanin cututtukan da ke yaɗuwa ta ruwa da gurbataccen ruwan sha. Kodayake ba a riga an ɓullo da ra'ayin ƙwayoyin cuta na haifar da rashin lafiya ba, abubuwan da Snow ya lura sun sa shi ƙaryata ra'ayin miasma da ya yi fari a lokacin. Makalarsa ta shekara ta 1855 On the Mode of Communication of Cholera ta nuna a fili rawar da samar da ruwa ke takawa wajen yaɗa annobar kwalara a Soho,[69] tare da amfani da taswirar rarraba ɗigo (dot distribution map) da shaidar kididdiga don nuna alaƙa tsakanin ingancin tushen ruwa da bullar cutar kwalara. A lokacin annobar ta shekara ta 1854, ya tattara kuma ya bincika bayanai da suka tabbatar da cewa mutanen da suka sha ruwa daga gurbatattun tushe kamar famfon Broad Street sun mutu daga kwalara a mafi girman kaso fiye da waɗanda suka sami ruwa a wani waje. Bayanansa sun gamsar da majalisar yankin don dakatar da famfon ruwan, wanda hakan ya kawo ƙarshen barkewar cutar cikin sauri.

Edwin Chadwick, musamman ma, ya taka rawar gani a harkar tsaftace muhalli ta Burtaniya (Sanitary movement), yana amfani da ra'ayin miasma don tallafawa tsare-tsarensa na inganta yanayin tsafta a Burtaniya.[66] Kodayake Chadwick ya kawo gudunmawa wajen haɓaka kiwon lafiyar jama'a a ƙarni na 19, John Snow da William Budd ne suka gabatar da ra'ayin cewa kwalara sakamakon gurbataccen ruwa ne, suna gabatar da ra'ayin cewa za a iya yada cututtuka ta hanyar ruwan sha.[66]

Mutane sun gano cewa tsarkakewa da tace ruwansu ya inganta ingancin ruwa kuma ya rage bullar cututtukan da ke yaɗuwa ta ruwa.[66] A garin Altona na Jamus, an fara nuna wannan bincike ta hanyar amfani da tsarin tace yashi don samar da ruwansa.[66] Wani gari da ke kusa da ba ya amfani da kowane tsarin tacewa don ruwansu ya fuskanci barkewar cutar yayin da Altona ta kasance ba ta fuskanci cutar ba, yana ba da shaidar cewa ingancin ruwa yana da alaƙa da cututtukan.[66] Bayan wannan gano, Burtaniya da sauran sassan Turai sun yi la'akari da tace ruwan shansu, tare da sanya musu chlorine don yaƙar cututtukan da ke yaɗuwa ta ruwa kamar kwalara.[66]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
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