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Tarihin yanayi

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Taswirar Skálholt ta ƙarni na 16 na Arewacin Amurka
Ɗaya daga cikin hutun GrimspoundYankin hutun
Tarihin yanayi
academic discipline (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na climatology
Is the study of (en) Fassara yanayi

Tarihin yanayi yanayi shine nazarin canje-canjen tarihi a cikin yanayi da tasirin su akan wayewa daga fitowar homininis zuwa yau. Yana damuwa da sake gina yanayi da yanayi da tasirin su a kan al'ummomin tarihi, gami da Tarihin kimiyya da fahimta da al'adu. Ana yin wannan a cikin babban mahallin Tarihin muhalli. Wannan ya bambanta da paleoclimatology wanda ya ƙunshi Canjin yanayi a duk Tarihin Duniya. Wadannan tasirin tarihi na canjin yanayi na iya inganta rayuwar ɗan adam kuma ya sa al'ummomi su bunƙasa, ko kuma su iya zama kayan aiki a rushewar al'umma. Nazarin yana neman ayyana lokutan a tarihin ɗan adam inda zafin jiki ko hazo ya bambanta da abin da aka lura a yau.

Tushen farko sun haɗa da rubuce-rubucen rubuce-buce kamar sagas, tarihin tarihi, taswirar da wallafe-wallafen tarihin gida da kuma wakilcin hoto kamar zane-zane, zane-zane har ma da fasahar dutse. Rubuce-rufe na archaeological yana da mahimmanci wajen kafa shaidar sulhu, ruwa da amfani da ƙasa.

Hanyoyi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin al'ummomin masu karatu, masana tarihi na iya samun rubuce-rubuce na bambancin yanayi a cikin daruruwan ko dubban shekaru, kamar rikodin ilimin halitta na matakai na halitta, misali rikodin ruwan inabi na kwanakin girbi. A cikin al'ummomin da ba su da ilimi ko wadanda ba su da karatu, masu bincike dole ne su dogara da wasu dabaru don samun shaidar bambancin yanayi na tarihi.

Za'a iya amfani da matakan jama'a da suka gabata da kuma wuraren zama na mutane ko tsire-tsire da dabbobi don neman shaidar bambance-bambance na baya a cikin yanayi na yankin. Palynology, nazarin pollens, na iya nuna ba kawai kewayon tsire-tsire ba kuma don sake gina yiwuwar muhalli, amma don kimanta adadin hazo a cikin wani lokaci da aka ba shi, bisa ga yawan pollen a cikin wannan Layer na laka ko kankara. Hakanan ana iya amfani da rarraba diatoms a cikin turɓaya don bincika canje-canje a cikin salinity da yanayi a kan zamanin geologic.[1]

Almanac na Janairu 1600. A gefen hagu na Gregorian kwanakin ciki har da kwanakin tsarkaka. A dama an taƙaita kwanakin Julian tare da kwanakin tsarkaka. Bayanan yanayi na shafi na dama. Tushen: Kalandar Jamusanci da Hans Jakob vom Staal the Elder ya yi amfani da ita don bayanin kula game da abubuwan da ke faruwa a yanzu

Littafin Palgrave Handbook of Climate History yana ba da cikakken bayani game da hanyoyin da sakamakon ilimin yanayi na tarihi a cikin yanayin duniya. Dangane da wannan, bai kamata a dauki bayanai a cikin takardun tarihi ba tare da tabbatarwa ba. Mafi amintacce sune rahotanni daga zamani waɗanda aka rubuta jim kadan bayan taron da kuma takardun kwanan wata daga cibiyoyin. Rubuce-rubucen tushe suna iya yin kuskure. Bugu da ƙari, dole ne a mai da hankali don daidaita kwanan wata. A duniya, akwai manyan tsarin kalandar guda biyu: kalandar hasken rana wanda ya dogara (kimanin) akan juyin juya halin duniya da ke kewaye da rana, da kalandar rana wanda ya dogara da yanayin wata. An yi amfani da tsoffin a tarihi a Turai (da yankunanta), Indiya, da Iran, yayin da aka yi amfani da Kalandar wata a tarihi a duniyar Islama da mulkin mallaka na kasar Sin. Har ila yau, yana da mahimmanci a rarrabe tsakanin Julian ("tsohon salon") (Julian Calendar) da Gregorian ("sabon salon") kwanakin (Gregorian Calendar). Lokacin da ake amfani da kwanakin "Saints'" don yin soyayya, dole ne a tantance ko kwanakin suna nufin sabon ko tsohuwar kalandar. Dole ne a yi kowane gyare-gyare daidai da haka. Almanac ɗin da aka gabatar na shekara ta 1600 yana nuna nau'ikan soyayya guda biyu ciki har da kwanakin tsarkaka gefe da gefe. "Tsohon" Kalandar Julian a dama tana murna da "Chris" [watau Kirsimeti] kwanaki 10 bayan 'sabon' Kalandar Gregorian a hagu, wato a ranar 4 ga Janairu. Idan ana amfani da Ranar Tsarkaka don yin jima'i dole ne a biya hankali ga kalandar da aka yi amfani da ita, kamar yadda haihuwar almanac da aka kwatanta ya nuna

Tarihin yanayin yanayi ya haifar da dubawa tsakanin labarin da Bayanan wakili a cikin nau'in lissafi wanda ke ba da damar kimantawa na lambobi na rahotanni na yanayi. Lissafin lambobi ya dogara ne akan fassarar cikakkiyar shaidar takardun da ke akwai wanda ke nuna yanayin zafin jiki ko yanayin hazo na wani wata ko kakar. Abin da ake kira Pfister index shine mafi yawan amfani da zafin jiki da hazo index.[2] Ya ƙunshi azuzuwan bakwai a kan sikelin daga -3 zuwa +3 yana nufin karkatarwa daga lokacin tunani a karni na 20. Fassarar ta samo asali ne daga hadin kai tsakanin bayanan labari da bayanan wakili. A gefe guda, bayanan labarin sun bayyana yanayin yanayi da tasirinsa a kan yanayin ɗan adam, amma ƙididdigar da ke tattare da yanayin zafin jiki da yanayin hazo na ra'ayi ne.[3] Bayanan wakilai a gefe guda suna ba da damar kimanta yanayin zafin jiki da hazo, amma ba sa ba da damar kammalawa ga cikakken yanayin yanayi da tasirinsa akan al'umma. Idan babu bayanan wakili masu dacewa, ya kamata a sanya bayanan labarin kawai a cikin aji na 1 'mai dumi' ko -1 'mai sanyi', ba tare da la'akari da kalmomin don hana wuce gona da iri ba.[4]

Matsayi a cikin juyin halitta na ɗan adam

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Changes in East African climate have been associated with the evolution of hominini. Researchers have proposed that the regional environment transitioned from humid jungle to more arid grasslands due to tectonic uplift[5] and changes in broader patterns of ocean and atmospheric circulation.[6] This environmental change is believed to have forced hominins to evolve for life in a savannah-type environment. Some data suggest that this environmental change caused the development of modern hominin features; however there exist other data that show that morphological changes in the earliest hominins occurred while the region was still forested. Rapid tectonic uplift likely occurred in the early Pleistocene,[6] changing the local elevation and broadly reorganizing the regional patterns of atmospheric circulation.[7][8] This can be correlated with the rapid hominin evolution of the Quaternary period.[5] Changes in climate at 2.8, 1.7, and 1.0 million years ago correlate well with observed transitions between recognized hominin species.[6] It is difficult to differentiate correlation from causality in these paleopanthropological and paleoclimatological reconstructions, so these results must be interpreted with caution and related to the appropriate time-scales and uncertainties.[9]

Shekaru na kankara

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Fashewar dutsen Toba, shekaru 70,000 zuwa 75,000 da suka gabata ya rage matsakaicin zafin jiki na duniya da digiri 5 na Celsius na shekaru da yawa kuma yana iya haifar da zamanin kankara. An yi la'akari da cewa wannan ya haifar da matsala a cikin juyin halitta na ɗan adam. Wani karami amma irin wannan sakamako ya faru bayan fashewar Krakatoa a 1883, lokacin da yanayin duniya ya fadi kusan shekaru 5 a jere.

Kafin koma baya na kankara a farkon Holocene (~ 9600 BC), kankara ya rufe yawancin latitudes na arewa da matakan teku sun kasance ƙasa da su a yau. Farawar lokacinmu na yanzu ya bayyana ya taimaka wajen bunkasa ci gaban ɗan adam.

Matsayi a cikin ƙaura da aikin gona

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Canjin yanayi an danganta shi da ƙaurawar ɗan adam daga ƙarshen Pleistocene zuwa farkon ƙarni na ashirin da ɗaya. Tasirin yanayi a kan albarkatun da ke akwai da yanayin rayuwa kamar abinci, ruwa, da zafin jiki sun kori motsi na yawan jama'a kuma sun ƙayyade ikon kungiyoyi don fara tsarin noma ko ci gaba da salon rayuwa.[10]

Ƙungiyoyi irin su mazaunan arewacin Peru da tsakiyar Chile, [11] Saqqaq a Greenland, [12] ƙabila masu ƙaura na Eurasian a Tarihin China, [13] da al'adun Natufian a Levant duk suna nuna halayen ƙaura saboda canjin yanayi.

Ƙarin bayani game da takamaiman shari'o'i

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A arewacin Peru da tsakiyar Chile an ambaci canjin yanayi a matsayin mai motsawa a cikin jerin alamu na ƙaura daga kimanin 15,000 BC zuwa kusan 4,500 BC. Tsakanin 11,800 BC da 10,500 BC shaidar ta nuna ƙaura ta yanayi daga sama zuwa ƙasa ta 'yan asalin yayin da yanayin ya ba da damar yanayin zafi ya ci gaba a yankuna biyu. Kusan 9,000 K.Z. tabkuna da suka yi aiki a matsayin gida ga 'yan asalin sun bushe kuma an watsar da su har zuwa 4,500 K.Z.[11] Wannan lokacin da aka watsar da shi wani bangare ne na tarihin archaeological da aka sani a cikin Mutanen Espanya a matsayin silencio arqueológico . A lokacin wannan hutu, babu wata shaida game da aikin da 'yan asalin ke yi a yankin tabkuna. Haɗin tsakanin yanayi da tsarin ƙaura ya sa masana tarihi su yi imani da 'yan asalin Chile na tsakiya sun fi son wurare masu zafi, ƙananan wurare musamman a lokacin ƙarancin bushewa.[11]

Mazauna daban-daban na Greenland, musamman a yamma, sun yi ƙaura da farko don amsawa ga canjin zafin jiki. Mutanen Saqqaq sun isa Greenland a kusa da 4,500 B.P. kuma sun sami canjin zafin jiki na matsakaici na shekaru 1,100 na farko na zama; kusa da 3,400 B.P., lokacin sanyaya ya fara wanda ya tura Saqqaq zuwa yamma. Irin wannan canjin zafin jiki ya faru a kusa da 2,800 B.P. wanda ya haifar da watsi da yankin Saqqaq; wannan canjin zafi ya kasance raguwar zafin jiki na kimanin 4 ° C sama da shekaru 200.[12] Bayan mamayar Saqqaq, wasu kungiyoyi kamar mutanen Dorset sun zauna a yammacin Greenland; Dorset masu farautar kankara ne waɗanda ke da kayan aiki da suka dace da yanayin sanyi. Dorset ya bayyana ya bar yankin a kusa da 2,200 BC ba tare da wata alaƙa da yanayin canzawa ba. Bayan mamayar Dorset, Norse ya fara bayyana a kusa da 1,100 BC a yammacin Greenland a lokacin babban lokacin dumama.[14] Koyaya, raguwar zafin jiki wanda ya fara a 850 BC na kimanin 4 ° C a cikin shekaru 80 ana zaton yana ba da gudummawa ga mutuwar aikin Norse na farko a yammacin Greenland.[12]  

In Historical China over the past 2,000 years, migration patterns have centered around precipitation change and temperature fluctuation. Pastoralists moved in order to feed the livestock that they cared for and to forage for themselves in more plentiful areas.[13] During dry periods or cooling periods the nomadic lifestyle became more prevalent because pastoralists were seeking more fertile ground. The precipitation was a more defining factor than temperature in terms of its effects on migration. The trend of the migrating Chinese showed that the northern pastoralists were more affected by the fluctuation in precipitation than the southern nomads. In a majority of cases, pastoralists migrated further southward during changes in precipitation.[13] These movements were not classified by one large event or a specific era of movement; rather, the relationship between climate and nomadic migration is relevant from "a long term perspective and on a large spatial scale."[13]

Jama'ar Natufian a cikin Levant sun kasance ƙarƙashin manyan canje-canje guda biyu na yanayi waɗanda suka rinjayi ci gaba da rabuwa da al'adunsu. A sakamakon karuwar zafin jiki, fadada gandun daji na Bahar Rum ya faru kusan shekaru 13,000 da suka gabata; tare da wannan fadada ya zo da canji zuwa ga neman abinci mai zaman kansa wanda jama'ar da ke kewaye da shi suka karɓa. Don haka, ƙaura zuwa gandun daji mafi tsawo ya faru kuma ya kasance daidai kusan shekaru 2,000. Wannan zamanin ya ƙare lokacin da yanayin ya zama mafi bushe kuma gandun daji na Bahar Rum ya ragu shekaru 11,000 da suka gabata. A kan wannan canji, wasu daga cikin mutanen Natufian da ke kusa da ƙasa mai ɗorewa sun sauya zuwa hanyar rayuwa ta noma; ƙasa mai ɗorawa ta kasance kusa da maɓuɓɓugar ruwa. Wadanda kungiyoyin da ba su zauna kusa da ingantaccen albarkatun sun koma ga nomadic foraging wanda ya kasance a cikin rayuwa mai zaman kanta.[10]

Al'ummomin tarihi da na farko

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Shaidar yanayi mai dumi a Turai, alal misali, ya fito ne daga binciken archaeological na zama da noma a farkon Bronze Age a tsawo yanzu fiye da noma, kamar Dartmoor, Exmoor, Lake District da Pennines a Burtaniya. Yanayin ya bayyana ya lalace zuwa Late Bronze Age duk da haka. An sami ƙauyuka da iyakokin filin a tsawo a cikin waɗannan yankuna, waɗanda yanzu suna da daji kuma ba a iya zama. Grimspound a kan Dartmoor an kiyaye shi sosai kuma yana nuna ragowar tsayawa na babban yanki a cikin yanayin da ba a karɓa ba yanzu.

Wasu sassan hamadar Sahara na yanzu na iya zama lokacin da yanayin ya fi sanyi da rigar, yin hukunci ta hanyar zane-zane da sauran alamun zama a cikin Prehistoric Tsakiyar Arewacin Afirka.

Ci gaban jama'a da birni

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kimanin sheka dubu daya bayan raguwar 7 ka na hauhawar matakin teku, yawancin cibiyoyin birane na bakin teku sun tashi zuwa shahararrun duniya.[15] An yi la'akari da cewa wannan yana da alaƙa da ci gaban yanayin bakin teku da yanayin halittu da karuwar yawan amfanin ruwa (kuma yana da alaja da karuwar yanayin zafi), wanda zai samar da tushen abinci ga al'ummomin birane masu matsayi.[15]

Rushewar jama'a

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
0Rubutun rubuce-rubuce na ƙarshe na Norse Greenlanders sun fito ne daga auren 1408 a cikin Ikilisiyar Hvalsey - a yau mafi kyawun adanawar rushewar Norse. 

Canjin yanayi yana da alaƙa da rushewar tarihi na wayewa, birane da sarakuna. Shahararrun misalai na wannan sun haɗa da Anasazi, [16] Classic Maya, [17] Harappa, Hittites, da Tsohon Misira. Sauran, ƙananan al'ummomi kamar su mazaunin Viking na Greenland suma sun sha wahala tare da canjin yanayi kasancewa mai ba da gudummawa. [18]

Akwai hanyoyi guda biyu da aka gabatar na rushewar Maya na gargajiya: muhalli da wadanda ba muhalli ba. Hanyar muhalli tana amfani da shaidar paleoclimatic don nuna cewa ƙungiyoyi a cikin Yankin Haɗuwa na Intertropical na iya haifar da fari mai tsanani, mai tsawo a cikin 'yan lokutan lokaci a ƙarshen rikodin archaeological na Maya na gargajiya.[19] Hanyar da ba ta muhalli ba ta nuna cewa rushewar na iya zama saboda karuwar tashin hankali na aji da ke da alaƙa da gina gine-gine masu ban mamaki da kuma raguwar aikin gona, karuwar cuta, da karuwar yaƙin ciki. [20][21]

Harappa da Indus wayewar da aka samu ta hanyar fari shekaru 4,500-3,500 da suka gabata. Rage ruwan sama a Gabas ta Tsakiya da Arewacin Indiya 3,800-2,500 na iya shafar Hittites da Tsohon Misira.

Lokacin zafi na zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Lokacin zafi na zamani shine lokacin zafi tsakanin kimanin AD 800-1300, a lokacin zamanin Turai. Shaidar archaeological tana tallafawa nazarin Norse sagas wanda ke bayyana sulhu na Greenland a karni na 9 AD na ƙasar da yanzu ba ta dace da noma ba. Misali, tonowa a wani wurin zama ya nuna kasancewar bishiyoyin birch a farkon zamanin Viking. Game da Norse, lokacin zafi na Medieval yana da alaƙa da zamanin Norse na bincike da mulkin mallaka na Arctic, kuma lokutan sanyi na baya sun haifar da raguwar waɗancan yankuna. Wannan lokacin ya rubuta gano wani yanki da ake kira Vinland, mai yiwuwa a Arewacin Amurka, wanda kuma yana iya zama mai dumi fiye da yanzu, yin hukunci da kasancewar inabi.

Ƙananan Shekarar Ice

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Misalan da suka biyo baya sun haɗa da Little Ice Age, wanda aka rubuta da kyau ta hanyar zane-zane, takardu (kamar littattafai) da abubuwan da suka faru kamar kogin Thames da aka gudanar a kan tabkuna da koguna masu daskarewa a ƙarni na 17 da 18. Kogin Thames ya zama ya fi ƙanƙanta kuma ya gudana da sauri bayan an rushe tsohon gadar London a 1831, kuma an rufe kogin a matakai a cikin karni na 19, dukansu biyu sun sa kogin ya zama mai ƙarancin daskarewa.

The Frozen Thames na Ibrahim Hondius, 1677

Little Ice Age ya kawo hunturu mai sanyi zuwa wasu sassan Turai da Arewacin Amurka. A tsakiyar karni na 17, kankara a cikin Swiss Alps sun ci gaba, sannu a hankali suna mamaye gonaki kuma suna murkushe dukkan ƙauyuka. Kogin Thames da canals da koguna na Netherlands sau da yawa suna daskarewa a lokacin hunturu, kuma mutane suna yin tsere har ma da gudanar da baje kolin sanyi a kan kankara. Gidan wasan kwaikwayo na farko na Thames ya kasance a cikin 1607; na ƙarshe a cikin 1814, kodayake canje-canje ga gadoji da ƙari na wani shinge ya shafi kwararar kogin da zurfin, yana rage yiwuwar daskarewa. Gishiri na Golden Horn da sashin kudancin Bosphorus ya faru ne a shekara ta 1622. A shekara ta 1658, sojojin Sweden sun yi tafiya a fadin Great Belt zuwa Denmark don mamaye Copenhagen. Tekun Baltic ya daskare, yana ba da damar hawa daga Poland zuwa Sweden, tare da gidajen baƙi na yanayi da aka gina a kan hanya. Lokacin hunturu na shekara ta 1794/1795 ya kasance mai tsanani musamman lokacin da sojojin mamaye Faransa a karkashin Pichegru suka iya tafiya a kan koguna masu daskarewa na Netherlands, yayin da aka gyara jiragen ruwa na Dutch a cikin kankara a tashar jiragen ruwa ta Den Helder. A cikin hunturu na shekara ta 1780, Tashar jiragen ruwa ta New York ta daskare, ta ba mutane damar tafiya daga Manhattan zuwa Staten Island. Gishiri na teku da ke kewaye da Iceland ya kai mil a kowane bangare, yana rufe tashar jiragen ruwa na tsibirin don jigilar kaya.

Rashin hunturu mai tsanani ya shafi rayuwar ɗan adam a hanyoyi masu girma da ƙananan. Yawan jama'ar Iceland ya fadi da rabi, amma wannan watakila saboda fluorosis wanda ya haifar da fashewar dutsen Laki a shekara ta 1783. Iceland kuma ta sha wahala daga gazawar amfanin gona kuma mutane sun ƙaura daga abincin hatsi. Mutanen Norse a Greenland sun yi yunwa kuma sun ɓace (a ƙarni na 15) yayin da amfanin gona ya gaza kuma ba za a iya kiyaye dabbobi ba ta hanyar hunturu mai tsanani, kodayake Jared Diamond ya lura cewa sun wuce ƙarfin aikin gona da iri kafin haka. A Arewacin Amurka, Indiyawa na Amurka sun kafa ƙungiyoyi don mayar da martani ga karancin abinci. A Kudancin Turai, a Portugal, guguwar dusar ƙanƙara ta fi yawa yayin da a yau suke da wuya. Akwai rahotanni na dusar ƙanƙara mai yawa a cikin hunturu na 1665, 1744 da 1886.

Ya bambanta da farkonsa mara tabbas, akwai yarjejeniya cewa Little Ice Age ya ƙare a tsakiyar karni na 19.

Shaidar canjin yanayi na mutum

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ta hanyar sare daji da aikin gona, wasu masana kimiyya sun ba da shawarar wani bangare na ɗan adam a wasu canje-canjen yanayi na tarihi. Wutar da mutum ya fara ta kasance cikin sauya yawancin Ostiraliya daga ciyawa zuwa hamada.[22] Idan gaskiya ne, wannan zai nuna cewa al'ummomin da ba na masana'antu ba na iya taka rawa wajen rinjayar yanayin yankin. Kashe daji, hamada da salinization na ƙasa na iya ba da gudummawa ko haifar da wasu canje-canjen yanayi a cikin tarihin ɗan adam.

Don tattaunawar da ɗan adam ya shiga cikin sauye-sauyen yanayi na baya-bayan nan, duba Bayar da canjin yanayi na baya.

Dubi kuma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • CLIWOC, bayanan yanayi don tekun duniya (1750-1854)
  • Rashin dumamar yanayi
  • Tarihin kimiyyar canjin yanayi
  • Rubuce-rubucen zafin jiki
  • Ƙananan Shekarar Ice
  • Alfred Thomas Grove
  • Jean Grove
  • Hubert Lamb
  • Gordon Manley
  • Christian Pfister (masanin tarihin Switzerland)

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Fritz, S. C.; Juggins, S.; Battarbee, R. W.; Engstrom, D. R. (1991). "Reconstruction of past changes in salinity and climate using a diatom-based transfer function". Nature. 352 (6337): 706–708. Bibcode:1991Natur.352..706F. doi:10.1038/352706a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4325091.
  2. ↑ Nash, David J.; Adamson, George C. D.; Ashcroft, Linden; Bauch, Martin; Camenisch, Chantal; Degroot, Dagomar; Gergis, Joelle; Jusopović, Adrian; Labbé, Thomas; Lin, Kuan-Hui Elaine; Nicholson, Sharon D.; Pei, Qing; del Rosario Prieto, María; Rack, Ursula; Rojas, Facundo (2021-06-17). "Climate indices in historical climate reconstructions: a global state of the art". Climate of the Past (in Turanci). 17 (3): 1273–1314. Bibcode:2021CliPa..17.1273N. doi:10.5194/cp-17-1273-2021. ISSN 1814-9332. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  3. ↑ Carey, Mark (2012). "Climate and history: a critical review of historical climatology and climate change historiography". WIREs Climate Change (in Turanci). 3 (3): 233–249. Bibcode:2012WIRCC...3..233C. doi:10.1002/wcc.171. ISSN 1757-7799.
  4. ↑ Glaser, Rüdiger; Riemann, Dirk (2009). "A thousand-year record of temperature variations for Germany and Central Europe based on documentary data". Journal of Quaternary Science (in Turanci). 24 (5): 437–449. Bibcode:2009JQS....24..437G. doi:10.1002/jqs.1302. ISSN 1099-1417.
  5. 1 2 Gani, Nahid DS; Gani, M. Royhan; Abdelsalam, Mohamed G. (2007). "Blue Nile incision on the Ethiopian Plateau: Pulsed plateau growth, Pliocene uplift, and hominin evolution". GSA Today. 17 (9): 4. Bibcode:2007GSAT...17i...4G. doi:10.1130/GSAT01709A.1.
  6. 1 2 3 Demenocal, P. B. (1995). "Plio-Pleistocene African Climate" (PDF). Science. 270 (5233): 53–9. Bibcode:1995Sci...270...53D. doi:10.1126/science.270.5233.53. PMID 7569951. S2CID 617678. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-25.
  7. ↑ Sepulchre, P; Ramstein, G; Fluteau, F; Schuster, M; Tiercelin, Jj; Brunet, M (Sep 2006). "Tectonic uplift and Eastern Africa aridification". Science. 313 (5792): 1419–23. Bibcode:2006Sci...313.1419S. doi:10.1126/science.1129158. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16960002. S2CID 4499083.
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  18. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  19. ↑ Haug, Gh; Günther, D; Peterson, Lc; Sigman, Dm; Hughen, Ka; Aeschlimann, B (Mar 2003). "Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization". Science. 299 (5613): 1731–5. Bibcode:2003Sci...299.1731H. doi:10.1126/science.1080444. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 12637744. S2CID 128596188.
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