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Tsarkakewa

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Tsarkakewa
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na separation process (en) Fassara
Tsire-tsire na osmosis na baya a Barcelona, Spain

Tsarkakewa tsari ne wanda ke cire ma'adanai daga ruwan gishiri. Fiye da haka, Tsarkakewa shine cire gishiri da ma'adanai daga wani abu. Misali daya shine cire gishiri daga ƙasa. Wannan yana da mahimmanci ga aikin gona. Yana yiwuwa a cire ruwan gishiri, musamman ruwan teku, don samar da ruwan amfani da mutum zai yi ko ban ruwa. Samfurin da aka samo daga tsarin cire gishiri brine saline.[1] Yawancin jiragen ruwa da na karkashin ruwa suna amfani da cire ruwa. Sha'awar zamani game da cire gishiri galibi tana mai da hankali kan samar da Ruwa mai kyau don amfanin mutum. Tare da ruwan da aka sake amfani da shi, yana ɗaya daga cikin 'yan albarkatun ruwa masu zaman kansu daga ruwan sama.[2]

Saboda amfani da makamashi, cire ruwan teku gabaɗaya ya fi tsada fiye da ruwa mai laushi daga ruwa mai zurfi ko ruwa mai zurfin ƙasa, sake amfani da ruwa da kiyayewa; duk da haka, waɗannan madadin ba koyaushe suke samuwa ba kuma raguwar ajiya matsala ce mai mahimmanci a duk duniya.[3][4][5] Hanyoyin cire gishiri suna amfani da ko dai hanyoyin zafi (a cikin yanayin distillation) ko hanyoyin da suka danganci membrane (misali a cikin yanayin osmosis na baya). :24

Wani kimantawa a cikin 2018 ya gano cewa "18,426 desalination plants suna aiki a cikin sama da ƙasashe 150. Suna samar da cubic mita miliyan 87 na ruwa mai tsabta kowace rana kuma suna samar da sama da mutane miliyan 300. ": 24 Ƙarfin makamashi ya inganta: Yanzu kusan 3 kWh / m3 (a cikin 2018), ya sauka da kashi 10 daga 20-30 kWh / M3 a cikin 1970. [6]: 24 Duk da haka, desalination ya wakilci kusan kashi 25% na makamashi da Sashin ruwa ya cinye a cikin 2016. [6] : 24 :24

Tarihi

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Tsohon masanin falsafar Girka Aristotle ya lura a cikin aikinsa na Meteorology cewa "ruwan gishiri, lokacin da ya juya ya zama tururi, ya zama mai daɗi kuma tururi ba ya sake samar da ruwan gishiri lokacin da ya taru", kuma cewa kyakkyawan jirgin ruwan zai riƙe ruwan sha bayan an nutse shi tsawon lokaci a cikin ruwan teku, bayan ya yi aiki a matsayin membrane don tace gishiri.

A lokaci guda an yi rikodin cire ruwan teku a kasar Sin. Dukkanin Classic of Mountains da Ruwa Seas a cikin Lokacin Yakin Jihohi da Ka'idar Shekara ɗaya a cikin Daular Han ta Gabas sun ambaci cewa mutane sun gano cewa matsunan bamboo da aka yi amfani da su don shinkafa za su samar da wani nau'i na waje bayan amfani da dogon lokaci. Fim ɗin da aka tsara yana da adsorption da musayar ion, wanda zai iya adsorb gishiri.[7]

Lokutan Dā

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Tunanin farko da ya shafi cire gishiri daga ruwan teku ana iya danganta shi da Aristotle, wanda ya lura a cikin Meteorology cewa idan ruwan teku ya ƙone ya tashi sama, tururin da ya taru ya koma ruwan sha mai tsabta ba tare da gishiri ba. Wannan ya nuna fahimtar farko game da ƙonewa da kuma taruwar tururi. Ya kuma bayyana yadda kwandon kakin zuma zai iya riƙe ruwan sha bayan an nutsar da shi cikin ruwan teku, yana nuna wani tsohon tsarin tacewa.[8]

A kasar Sin ta dā ma an samu bayanai kan cire gishiri daga ruwan teku. Rubuce-rubucen da suka shafi lokacin Yaƙin Jihohi da kuma Daular Han ta Gabas sun bayyana yadda tabarmar bamboo da ake amfani da ita wajen dafa shinkafa ke samun wani siririn ɓawon waje bayan dogon amfani, wanda ake ɗauka yana da ikon shan gishiri.[9]

A gaba ɗaya, misalan gwaje-gwaje kan cire gishiri daga ruwan teku sun bayyana a zamanin dā da kuma Tsakiyar Zamani, duk da haka sun kasance ƙanana ne kuma ba su da amfani sosai.[10] Babban tsarin cire gishiri daga ruwan teku bai samu ba sai a zamanin zamani.[11]

Tsakiyar Zamani da Renesans (ƙarni na 5–17)

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A Tsakiyar Zamani, cire gishiri daga ruwan teku ya kasance ƙanana ne kuma ya ta’allaka da distillation, inda ake dumama ruwan teku don samar da tururi wanda ake tarawa ya koma ruwan sha. Wadannan hanyoyi sun kasance ƙanana ne kuma ana amfani da su musamman a cikin jiragen ruwa.[12]

A lokacin Renesans, Leonardo da Vinci ya bayar da gudummawa ta musamman inda ya ba da shawarar cewa ruwan da aka distill za a iya samar da shi cikin sauƙi ta hanyar daidaita injin distillation zuwa murhun girki.[13] }}

Zamanin Masana’antu (ƙarni na 19)

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Hanyoyin cire gishiri daga ruwan teku sun sauya sosai tun farkon ƙarni na 19 tare da yaɗuwar injin tururi da ci gaban thermodynamics. Bukatar ruwan tsabta don injinan tururi da kuma yaɗuwar mulkin mallaka na Turawa zuwa yankunan hamada ya ƙara buƙatar ci gaban fasahar cire gishiri.[12][14]

Ƙarni na 20

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Bayan Yaƙin Duniya na II, fasahar cire gishiri ta ci gaba sosai. Hanyoyin thermal kamar multi-effect flash da multi-stage flash desalination sun samu ci gaba sosai, musamman a yankunan da ba su da isasshen ruwan sha. Haka kuma, an fara amfani da hanyoyin freeze–thaw desalination.[15]

Ƙarni na 21 da ci gaban zamani

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Tun farkon ƙarni na 21, ƙarfin cire gishiri daga ruwan teku ya ƙaru sosai, tare da dubban masana’antu a duk duniya, musamman a Gabas ta Tsakiya.[16] Reverse osmosis ya zama fasahar da ta fi rinjaye saboda sauƙin amfani da kuma ƙarancin kuzari.[16]

Bincike a ƙarni na 21 ya fi mayar da hankali kan inganci da dorewa, ciki har da haɗa makamashin sabuntawa kamar hasken rana da iska cikin tsarin cire gishiri, da kuma haɓaka sabbin membranes kamar graphene, biomimetic, ceramic, da nanocomposite.[17]

A shekarar 2021, an kiyasta cewa akwai kusan masana’antu 22,000 da ke aiki a duniya.[16] }}

Aikace-aikace

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External audio
audio icon "Mayar da Hamada ta yi Kore: Amfani da dabi’a wajen kawar da fari", Podcast ɗin Distillations da rubutaccen bayani, Episode 239, 19 ga Maris, 2019, Science History Institute
Zane na wani multistage flash desalinator
A – tururi mai shigowa     B – ruwan teku mai shigowa     C – ruwan sha mai fita
D – brine mai fita (shara)     E – condensate mai fita     F – musayar zafi     G – tattara ruwan da aka tace (ruwan da aka cire gishiri)
H – tukunyar dumama brine
pressure vessel yana aiki a matsayin countercurrent heat exchanger. Wani vacuum pump yana rage matsin lamba a cikin tanki domin sauƙaƙe fitar tururin ruwan teku mai zafi (brine) wanda ke shiga daga gefen dama (launuka masu duhu suna nuna ƙarancin zafi). Tururin yana tattaruwa a kan bututun da ke saman tanki inda sabon ruwan teku ke tafiya daga hagu zuwa dama.

A yanzu akwai kimanin tsire-tsiren tace ruwan gishiri 21,000 da ke aiki a duniya. Manyan su suna a Hadaddiyar Daular Larabawa, Saudi Arabia, da Isra’ila. Babbar masana’antar tace ruwan gishiri a duniya tana a Saudi Arabia (Ras Al-Khair Power and Desalination Plant) tare da ƙarfin samar da mita-cubic 1,401,000 na ruwa a kowace rana.[18]

Tace ruwan gishiri yana da tsada idan aka kwatanta da yawancin hanyoyin samun ruwa, kuma ƙaramin kaso ne kawai na amfani da ruwa na ɗan adam ake samun sa ta wannan hanya.[19]

Yawanci ana amfani da shi ne kawai a wuraren da ruwa ke da daraja sosai (kamar amfani na gida da masana’antu) a yankunan da ke da ƙanƙarar ruwa (arid). Duk da haka, ana samun ƙaruwa wajen amfani da shi a aikin noma domin magance salin ƙasa (soil desalination). Hakanan, yawancin jiragen ruwa da submarines suna amfani da tace ruwan gishiri. Amfani mafi yawa yana a birane masu yawan jama’a kamar Singapore[20] ko California.[21] da musamman a yankin Persian Gulf.[22]

Kudin makamashi a hanyoyin tace ruwan gishiri yana bambanta sosai gwargwadon gishirin ruwan, girman shuka da nau’in tsari. A yanzu farashin tace ruwan teku ya fi na hanyoyin ruwa na gargajiya, amma ana sa ran zai ragu tare da ci gaban fasaha, ciki har da inganta amfani da makamashi, rage girman shuka, inganta aiki, da amfani da makamashi mai rahusa.[23]

Wasu bincike sun nuna cewa desalination ba koyaushe ba ne mai arha ko mai dorewa, musamman a wuraren da ke da nisa daga teku, ko a yankunan da ke da tudu mai tsawo.[24] A irin waɗannan wurare, yana iya zama mafi arha a jigilar ruwa daga wani wuri fiye da gina masana’antar tace ruwan gishiri.

Misali, birane kamar New Delhi, Mexico City, Riyadh da Harare suna fuskantar irin wannan ƙalubale, yayin da birane na bakin teku kamar Beijing, Bangkok, Zaragoza, Phoenix da Tripoli suna da ƙarancin matsalar jigilar ruwa.[25]

A 2023, Isra’ila na amfani da desalination wajen cika ruwan Sea of Galilee.[26]

Wasu masana suna ganin cewa desalination na iya zama mai tsada sosai kuma ba koyaushe ya dace ba, don haka ƙasashe su mayar da hankali kan kiyaye ruwa da sauran hanyoyin samar da ruwa.[27]

Fasahohi

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Samfuri:Desalination

Mafi yawan hanyoyin tace ruwan gishiri sune distillation da reverse osmosis.[28]

Akwai hanyoyi da dama.[29] Kowanne yana da fa’ida da rashin fa’ida, amma duka suna da amfani. Za a iya raba hanyoyin zuwa na membrane (misali reverse osmosis) da na zafi (thermal-based) kamar multi-stage flash distillation.[1] Hanyar gargajiya ita ce distillation, wato tafasa ruwa da sake condensation dinsa domin barin gishiri da datti a baya.[30]

A halin yanzu akwai manyan fasahohi biyu da ke da kaso mafi yawa na ƙarfin tace ruwan gishiri a duniya: multi-stage flash distillation da reverse osmosis.

Distillation

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Solar distillation

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Solar distillation yana kwaikwayon tsarin zagayowar ruwa na halitta, inda rana ke dumama ruwan teku har ya fara evaporate.[31] Bayan evaporation, tururin ruwa yana taruwa a saman sanyi ya koma ruwa.[31] Akwai nau’i biyu na solar desalination. Na farko yana amfani da photovoltaic cells domin canza makamashin rana zuwa wutar lantarki don gudanar da tsarin. Na biyu yana canza makamashin rana zuwa zafi, wanda ake kira solar thermal powered desalination.

Natural evaporation

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Ruwa na iya evaporate ta wasu hanyoyin jiki daban da hasken rana kawai. Wadannan hanyoyi an shigar da su cikin tsarin desalination na hadaka a cikin IBTS Greenhouse. IBTS wani masana’antar desalination ce a gefe guda, sannan a gefe guda greenhouse ce da ke amfani da tsarin zagayowar ruwa na halitta (an rage shi zuwa 1:10). Dukkan matakan evaporation da condensation suna faruwa cikin tsarin gine-gine na musamman, wasu a karkashin kasa. Wannan tsarin yana da amfani sosai wajen desert greening mai girma saboda yana bukatar babban fili na ruwa da kuma canjin yanayin kasa zuwa kore.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Vacuum distillation

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A cikin vacuum distillation, ana rage matsin lamba na iska, wanda ke rage zafin da ruwa ke bukata kafin ya fara tafasa. Ruwa yana tafasa ne idan matsin tururi ya kai na muhalli. Don haka idan matsin ya ragu, ruwa na iya tafasa a ƙananan zafi. Wannan yana ba da damar amfani da zafin da aka ɓata daga wutar lantarki ko masana’antu wajen dumama ruwa.

Multi-stage flash distillation

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Ana tace ruwa ta hanyar multi-stage flash distillation, wato jerin matakai na “flash evaporation”.[31] Kowanne mataki yana amfani da makamashin da aka saki daga condensation na tururin matakin baya.[31]

Multiple-effect distillation

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Multiple-effect distillation (MED) yana aiki da matakai da ake kira “effects”.[31] Ana fesa ruwa a kan bututu da ake dumama su don samar da tururi. Wannan tururin yana dumama sabon ruwan teku da ke shigowa.[31] Don inganta aiki, ana iya amfani da tururin daga tashoshin wutar lantarki.[31] Duk da cewa wannan hanya tana da inganci sosai wajen amfani da zafi,[32] akwai iyaka kamar matsakaicin zafin aiki da adadin effects.[33]

Vapor-compression distillation

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Vapor-compression evaporation yana amfani da injin compressor ko jet stream domin matsa tururi da ke saman ruwa.[32] Tururin da aka matsa yana samar da zafi da ake amfani da shi wajen ci gaba da evaporation.[31] Wannan tsarin yana amfani da wutar lantarki kawai, don haka yana da amfani musamman a ƙananan sikeli.[31]

Membrane distillation

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Membrane distillation yana amfani da bambancin zafi a tsakanin membrane domin fitar da tururi daga brine sannan a tattara ruwan sha a gefen sanyi.[34] Tsarin membrane yana da tasiri sosai kan inganci da dorewa.

Osmosis

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Reverse osmosis

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Zane na wani shuka na desalination ta amfani da reverse osmosis
Wata masana’antar reverse osmosis a Tampa Bay, Florida

Hanyar da ta fi yaduwa a duniya wajen desalination ita ce reverse osmosis (RO).[35] Ana amfani da membranes masu semipermeable tare da matsin lamba domin raba ruwa daga gishiri.

Tsarin RO yana amfani da thin-film composite membrane wanda ke da layer na polyamide. Wannan yana ba shi damar tace ruwa yadda ya kamata.[36]

Tsarin yana bukatar kulawa saboda abubuwa kamar calcium, magnesium, bacteria, viruses da biofouling na iya rage inganci. Ana amfani da pretreatment da chemicals domin kare membrane.[37]

Hakanan ana yin cleaning lokaci-lokaci, wanda zai iya zama haɗari ga muhalli idan ba a kula ba.[38]

Ana kuma amfani da solar-powered desalination units a wasu wurare domin samar da ruwa ba tare da dogaro da wutar lantarki ba.[39]

Freeze–thaw

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Freeze–thaw desalination yana amfani da daskarewa domin raba ruwa mai dadi daga ruwan gishiri.[40]

Electrodialysis

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Electrodialysis yana amfani da wutar lantarki domin motsa gishiri ta membranes masu caji.[41]

Electrodialysis na iya cire carbonic acid tare da gishiri daga ruwa.[42]

Microbial desalination

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Microbial desalination cells suna amfani da kwayoyin halitta masu aiki da wutar lantarki domin taimakawa wajen tace ruwa a cikin tsarin electrochemical.

Fannin Zane

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Amfanin makamashi

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Amfanin makamashi na aikin cire gishiri daga ruwa ya danganta da yawan gishirin da ke cikin ruwan. Cire gishiri daga ruwan brackish yana buƙatar ƙarancin makamashi fiye da cire gishiri daga ruwan teku.[43]

Ƙarfin makamashi na cire gishiri daga ruwan teku ya inganta: Yanzu yana kusan 3 kWh/m3 (a 2018), ya ragu daga 20–30 kWh/m3 a shekarar 1970.[6]:24 Wannan yana kama da amfani da makamashi na wasu hanyoyin samar da ruwan sha da ake jigilar su daga nesa,[44] amma ya fi ƙwarai idan aka kwatanta da ruwan sha na cikin gida wanda ke amfani da makamashi 0.2 kWh/m3 ko ƙasa da haka.[45]

An gano ƙarancin amfani da makamashi na cire gishiri daga ruwan teku kusan 1 kWh/m3,[43][46][47] banda tacewa da famfon shigarwa/fitarwa. Ƙasa da 2 kWh/m3[48] an cimma ta hanyar fasahar membrane na reverse osmosis, wanda ya rage damar rage makamashi, domin a shekarun 1970 reverse osmosis yana amfani da makamashi 16 kWh/m3.[43]

Idan duk ruwan sha na cikin gida a Amurka za a samar ta hanyar cire gishiri, hakan zai ƙara amfani da makamashi na cikin gida da kusan 10%, wanda ya yi daidai da makamashin da na’urorin firiji ke amfani da shi.[49] Amfanin cikin gida dai ƙaramin kaso ne na jimillar amfani da ruwa.[50]

Amfanin makamashi na hanyoyin cire gishiri daga ruwan teku (kWh/m3)[51]
Hanyar cire gishiri ⇨ Multi-stage
Flash
"MSF"		 Multi-Effect
Distillation
"MED"		 Mechanical Vapor
Compression
"MVC"		 Reverse
Osmosis
"RO"
Makamashi ⇩
Makamashin lantarki4–61.5–2.57–123–5.5
Makamashin zafi50–11060–110babubabu
Daidaiton makamashin lantarki na zafi9.5–19.55–8.5babubabu
Jimillar daidaiton makamashin lantarki13.5–25.56.5–117–123–5.5

Lura: "Daidaiton lantarki" yana nufin yawan makamashin lantarki da za a iya samarwa ta amfani da wani adadin makamashin zafi da injin turbin da ya dace. Wadannan lissafi ba su haɗa da makamashin da ake buƙata wajen gina ko gyara kayan da ake amfani da su ba.

Saboda yawan makamashin da ake buƙata da kuma kuɗi da tasirin muhalli, cire gishiri daga ruwa ana ɗaukar shi a matsayin mataki na ƙarshe bayan kiyaye ruwa. Amma wannan yana canzawa yayin da farashi ke ci gaba da raguwa.

Cogeneration

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Cogeneration yana samar da zafi mai amfani da wutar lantarki daga tsari guda. Wannan na iya samar da zafi mai amfani don cire gishiri a cikin cibiyar haɗe, inda tashar wuta ke samar da makamashi don cire gishiri. A madadin haka, samar da makamashin cibiyar na iya kasancewa don samar da ruwan sha kawai, ko kuma a samar da makamashi fiye da buƙata a haɗa shi cikin tsarin wutar lantarki. Ana iya yin cogeneration ta hanyoyi daban-daban, kuma a ka’ida kowace hanyar samar da makamashi za a iya amfani da ita. Amma yawancin cibiyoyin cogeneration na yanzu da ake shirin ginawa suna amfani da man fetur ko makamashin nukiliya. Yawancin wadannan cibiyoyin suna a Gabas ta Tsakiya ko Arewacin Afirka, inda ake amfani da albarkatun man fetur don rage ƙarancin ruwan sha. Amfanin cibiyoyin haɗe shi ne suna iya rage amfani da makamashi, wanda ke sa cire gishiri ya fi dacewa.[52] Sake amfani da ruwan sharar gida yana bayar da fa’ida fiye da tsarkake ruwan gishiri,[53] ko da yake yawanci ana amfani da matattarar tsarkakewa.[54] Ruwa daga ruwan sama da kuma tara ruwan ambaliya suna bayar da fa’ida wajen tsaftacewa, dawo da shi da kuma cike ruwan karkashin ƙasa.[55]

Wani shirin da aka gabatar a matsayin madadin tsarkake ruwan teku a Kudancin Yammacin Amurka shi ne shigo da ruwan kasuwanci daga wuraren da ke da yalwar ruwa ta hanyar manyan jiragen mai da aka mayar da su na ɗaukar ruwa, ko kuma ta bututun ruwa. Wannan ra’ayi bai samu karɓuwa ba a Kanada, inda gwamnati ta kafa shingen kasuwanci kan fitar da ruwan da yawa sakamakon ƙarar NAFTA.[56]

Ma’aikatar Albarkatun Ruwa ta California da Hukumar Ruwa ta California sun gabatar da rahoto ga majalisar dokoki na jihar suna ba da shawarar cewa masu samar da ruwan birane su cimma ƙa’idar ingantaccen amfani da ruwan cikin gida na 55 US gallons (210 litres) kowanne mutum a rana kafin shekara ta 2023, sannan ya ragu zuwa 47 US gallons (180 litres) a rana kafin 2025, da kuma 42 US gallons (160 litres) a shekara ta 2030 da bayan haka.[57][58][59]

Farashi

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Abubuwan da ke ƙayyade farashin tsarkake ruwan teku sun haɗa da ƙarfin da nau’in wurin aiki, wurin da yake, ruwan da ake tsarkakewa, ma’aikata, makamashi, kuɗin jari, da kuma yadda ake zubar da ruwan gishiri. Farashin tsarkake ruwan teku (ginshikai, makamashi, da gyare-gyare) yawanci ya fi na ruwan da ake samu daga koguna ko ruwan karkashin ƙasa, sake amfani da ruwa, da adana ruwa, amma ba koyaushe ake samun waɗannan hanyoyin. A shekarar 2013, farashin tsarkake ruwan teku ya kai daga dala $0.45 zuwa $1.00/m3. Fiye da rabin farashin yana fitowa ne daga makamashi, kuma saboda farashin makamashi yana sauyawa sosai, farashin na gaskiya yana iya bambanta ƙwarai.[60]

Farashin ruwan da ba a tsarkake ba a ƙasashen da ke tasowa na iya kaiwa dala $5 kowanne cubic metre.[61]

Tun daga 1975, fasahar tsarkake ruwan teku ta samu ci gaba sosai, inda ta rage matsakaicin farashin samar da cubic metre ɗaya na ruwan sha daga $1.10 a shekarar 2000 zuwa kusan $0.50 a yau. Ingantacciyar fasahar tsarkakewa ita ce babban dalilin wannan raguwa. Amfani da makamashi har yanzu babban ɓangare ne na farashi, yana iya kaiwa rabin jimillar farashin tsarkakewa.[62]

Tsarkake ruwan teku na iya ɗora nauyi sosai ga tsarin wutar lantarki, musamman a yankunan da ke da ƙarancin makamashi. Misali, a ƙasar tsibirin Cyprus, tsarkake ruwan teku yana ɗaukar kusan kashi 5% na jimillar amfani da wutar lantarki.[62]

Kasuwar tsarkake ruwan teku ta duniya ta kai dala biliyan 20 a shekarar 2023. Tare da ƙaruwa na yawan jama’a a yankunan bakin teku masu bushewa, ana hasashen wannan kasuwa za ta ninka sau biyu kafin 2032. A shekarar 2023, ƙarfin tsarkake ruwan teku na duniya ya kai miliyan 99 cubic metre a rana, ƙaruwa mai yawa daga miliyan 27 cubic metre a rana a shekarar 2003.[62]

Kwatancen Farashin Hanyoyin Tsarkake Ruwan Teku
Hanya Farashi (US$/lita)
Solar mara aiki (30.42% ingancin makamashi)[63] 0.000825
Matsakaicin amfani da ruwa da farashin samarwa ta tsarkake ruwan teku a US$1 kowanne cubic metre (±50%)
YankiAmfani
Lita/mutum/a rana		Farashin Ruwan Tsarkake
US$/mutum/a rana
Amurka3780.38
Turai1890.19
Afirka570.06
Ƙaramin adadin da UN ta ba da shawara490.05

Tsarkake ruwan teku yana sarrafa matsin lamba, zafin jiki da kuma yawan gishiri don inganta aiki. Tsarkake ruwan teku da ke amfani da makamashin nukiliya na iya zama mai araha idan aka yi shi a matakin babba.[64][65]

A shekarar 2014, wuraren tsarkake ruwan teku na Isra’ila a Hadera, Palmahim, Ashkelon, da Sorek suna tsarkake ruwa a ƙasa da dala $0.40 kowanne cubic metre.[66] A shekarar 2006, Singapore tana tsarkake ruwa a dala $0.49 kowanne cubic metre.[67]

Damuwa na muhalli

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Shigar ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A Amurka, tsarin shigar da ruwan sanyaya ana kula da su ne ta Hukumar Kare Muhalli (EPA). Wadannan tsare-tsare na iya yin tasiri iri ɗaya ga muhalli kamar yadda wuraren tsarkake ruwan teku ke yi. Bisa ga rahoton EPA, tsarin shigar ruwa na iya haifar da illa ga muhalli ta hanyar jawo kifi da ƙwaryar su ko ƙwai cikin tsarin masana’antu. A can, halittu na iya mutuwa ko jikkata saboda zafi, wahalar jiki, ko sinadarai. Manyan halittu na iya mutuwa ko jikkata idan suka makale a kan matattarar shigar ruwa.[68] Wani madadin tsarin shigar ruwa da ke rage waɗannan tasirin shi ne rijiyoyin bakin teku, amma suna buƙatar ƙarin makamashi da tsada.[69]

Wurin tsarkake ruwan teku na Kwinana ya buɗe a birnin Perth na Ostiraliya a shekarar 2007. Ruwan da ake samu a can da kuma a wuraren tsarkake ruwan teku na Gold Coast a Queensland da Kurnell a Sydney ana ɗaukar shi a 0.1 m/s (0.33 ft/s), wanda ya yi a hankali har kifi zai iya tserewa. Wurin yana samar da kusan 140,000 m3 (4,900,000 cu ft) na ruwan tsabta a kowace rana.[70]

A shekarar 2025, Corpus Christi Texas ta soke babban aikin tsarkake ruwan teku saboda muhawara kan damuwa na muhalli da na kuɗi.[71]

Fitar ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Samfuri:More citations needed section Tsarin tsarkake ruwan teku yana samar da babban adadin ruwan gishiri, wanda zai iya kasancewa da zafi fiye da na muhalli, kuma yana ɗauke da ragowar sinadarai na tsaftacewa da shirye-shirye, sakamakon sinadarai da kuma ƙarafa masu nauyi saboda lalacewa (musamman a wuraren da ke amfani da zafi).[72][73] Sinadarai na tsaftacewa da shirye-shirye suna da muhimmanci a yawancin wuraren tsarkake ruwan teku, wanda yawanci ya haɗa da hana ƙazantar halittu, taruwar ma’adinai, kumfa da lalacewa a wuraren zafi, da kuma hana ƙazantar halittu, ƙazanta mai ɗauke da ƙwayoyin da taruwar ma’adinai a wuraren da ke amfani da membrane.[74]

Amfani a duniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Trade Arabia ta bayyana cewa Saudiyya tana samar da ruwan da aka cire gishiri har miliyan 7.9 a kowace rana, wanda ya kai kashi 22% na jimillar duniya, a ƙarshen shekarar 2021.[75]


  • Perth ta fara aiki da shuka ta reverse osmosis don cire gishiri daga ruwan teku a 2006.[76] Shukar Perth tana samun wani bangare na makamashi daga hasken iska na Emu Downs Wind Farm.[70][77]
  • A Sydney yanzu ana amfani da shuka ta cire gishiri,[78] kuma shuka ta Wonthaggi tana gini a Wonthaggi, Victoria. Wani shuka ta iska a Bungendore, New South Wales an gina shi musamman don samar da makamashi mai sabuntawa da zai daidaita amfani da makamashin shukar Sydney,[79] domin rage fargabar hayakin greenhouse gas.
  • A ranar 17 ga Janairu, 2008, jaridar The Wall Street Journal ta bayyana cewa kamfanin Poseidon Resources Corp. ya samu amincewar gwamnati don gina shuka ta cire gishiri a Carlsbad, California, wanda zai samar da ruwan sha cubic metre 190,000 a rana, isasshen don gidaje 100,000.[80] A watan Yuni 2012, kudin ruwan da aka cire gishiri ya kai $2,329 a kowace acre-foot.[81] Kowace $1,000 a acre-foot ya yi daidai da $3.06 a kowace 1,000 gallons, ko $0.81 a kowace cubic metre.[82]

Saboda sabbin fasahohi suna rage kudin gina shuka ta cire gishiri, ƙasashe da dama suna gina irin waɗannan shuke-shuke don magance matsalar ƙarancin ruwa.[83]

  • Isra’ila tana cire gishiri daga ruwa da farashin cent 53 a kowace cubic metre.[84]
  • Singapore tana cire gishiri daga ruwa da farashin cent 49 a kowace cubic metre[85] kuma tana tace najasa da reverse osmosis don amfani a masana’antu da ruwan sha (NEWater).
  • China da Indiya, ƙasashen da suka fi yawan jama’a a duniya, suna fara amfani da cire gishiri don wani ɓangare na bukatun ruwansu.[86][87]
  • A 2007 Pakistan ta sanar da shirin amfani da cire gishiri.[88]
  • Dukkan manyan biranen Australiya (banda Canberra, Darwin, da Hobart) suna gina ko amfani da shuke-shuken cire gishiri. A ƙarshen 2011, Melbourne za ta fara amfani da shuka mafi girma a Australiya, Wonthaggi desalination plant.
  • A 2007 Bermuda ta sanya hannu kan kwangila don sayen shuka ta cire gishiri.[89]
  • Kafin 2015, shuka mafi girma a Amurka tana Tampa Bay, Florida, wadda ta fara cire gishiri daga gallon miliyan 25 a rana a Disamba 2007.[90] A Amurka, kudin cire gishiri ya

Haɗin waje

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. 1 2 Panagopoulos, Argyris; Haralambous, Katherine-Joanne; Loizidou, Maria (2019-11-25). "Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies – A review". The Science of the Total Environment. 693: 133545. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.69333545P. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351. ISSN 1879-1026. PMID 31374511. S2CID 199387639.
  2. ↑ Fischetti, Mark (September 2007). "Fresh from the Sea". Scientific American. 297 (3): 118–119. Bibcode:2007SciAm.297c.118F. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0907-118. PMID 17784633.
  3. ↑ Ebrahimi, Atieh; Najafpour, Ghasem D; Yousefi Kebria, Daryoush (2019). "Performance of microbial desalination cell for salt removal and energy generation using different catholyte solutions". Desalination. 432: 1. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2018.01.002.
  4. ↑ "Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239". Science History Institute. March 19, 2019. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
  5. ↑ Elsaid, Khaled; Kamil, Mohammed; Sayed, Enas Taha; Abdelkareem, Mohammad Ali; Wilberforce, Tabbi; Olabi, A. (2020). "Environmental impact of desalination technologies: A review". Science of the Total Environment. 748: 141528. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.74841528E. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141528. PMID 32818886.
  6. 1 2 3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "IWA2022".
  7. ↑ Zhang, Huachao; Xu, Haoyuan (2021-03-01). "Investigation and Research on the Status Quo of Informatization Development at Home and Abroad". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 692 (2): 022040. Bibcode:2021E&ES..692b2040Z. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/692/2/022040. ISSN 1755-1307.
  8. ↑ Aristotle with E.W. Webster, trans., Meteorologica, in: Ross, W. D., ed., The Works of Aristotle, vol. 3, (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1931), Book III, §358: 16–18 and §359: 1–5.
  9. ↑ Zhang, Huachao; Xu, Haoyuan (March 1, 2021). "Investigation and Research on the Status Quo of Informatization Development at Home and Abroad". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 692 (2). Bibcode:2021E&ES..692b2040Z. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/692/2/022040. ISSN 1755-1307. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ See:
    • Joseph Needham, Ho Ping-Yu, Lu Gwei-Djen, Nathan Sivin, Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1980), p. 60.
    • Alexander of Aphrodisias (fl. 200 A.D.) wrote, in his commentary on Aristotle's Meteorology, that if a lid is placed on a boiling pot of seawater, fresh water will condense on the lid.
    • In his Hexaemeron, Homily IV, § 7, St. Basil of Caesarea (c. 329–379 AD) mentioned that sailors produced fresh water via distillation. Saint Basil with Sister Agnes Clare Way, trans., Saint Basil Exegetic Homilies (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1963), p. 65. From p. 65: "Moreover, it is possible to see the water of the sea boiled by sailors, who, catching the vapors in sponges, relieve their thirst fairly well in times of need."
  11. ↑ "Sample" (PDF). www.desware.net.
  12. 1 2 Birkett, James D. (January 1, 1984). "A brief illustrated history of desalination: From the bible to 1940". Desalination (in Turanci). 50: 17–52. Bibcode:1984Desal..50...17B. doi:10.1016/0011-9164(84)85014-6. ISSN 0011-9164.
  13. ↑ J. R. Partington, History of Chemistry, Vol. 2–3, Macmillan, London, 1962.
  14. ↑ Lyle, Oliver (1956). The Efficient Use of Steam (in Turanci). H.M. Stationery Office.
  15. ↑ Mao, Shudi; Onggowarsito, Casey; Feng, An; Zhang, Stella; Fu, Qiang; Nghiem, Long D. (2023). "A cryogel solar vapor generator". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 11 (2): 858–867. doi:10.1039/d2ta08317e. ISSN 2050-7488.
  16. 1 2 3 Angelakis, Andreas N.; Valipour, Mohammad (August 16, 2021). "Desalination: From Ancient to Present and Future". Water. 13 (16): 2222. doi:10.3390/w13162222.
  17. ↑ Al-Obaidi, Mudhar A. (April 11, 2024). "Integration of Renewable Energy Systems in Desalination". Processes. 12 (4): 770. doi:10.3390/pr12040770.
  18. ↑ "Largest water desalination plant". Guinness World Records (in Turanci). Retrieved August 21, 2020.
  19. ↑ Do Thi, Huyen Trang; Pasztor, Tibor; Fozer, Daniel; Manenti, Flavio; Toth, Andras Jozsef (January 2021). "Comparison of Desalination Technologies Using Renewable Energy Sources with Life Cycle, PESTLE, and Multi-Criteria Decision Analyses". Water. 13 (21): 3023. doi:10.3390/w13213023. ISSN 2073-4441.<ref>Warsinger, David M.; Tow, Emily W.; Nayar, Kishor G.; Maswadeh, Laith A.; Lienhard V, John H. (2016). "Energy efficiency of batch and semi-batch (CCRO) reverse osmosis desalination". Water Research. 106: 272–282. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2016.09.029. PMID 27728821.
  20. ↑ Theng, Charlotte Kng Yoong (September 16, 2022). "Daga NEWater zuwa noma a tsaye: Muhimman matakai a tafiyar Singapore na shekaru 50 zuwa dorewa". www.straitstimes.com (in Turanci). Retrieved April 21, 2023.
  21. ↑ Canon, Gabrielle (May 11, 2022). "California na yanke shawara kan makomar masana'antar desalination a lokacin fari". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved April 21, 2023.
  22. ↑ Le Quesne, W. J. F.; Fernand, L.; Ali, T. S.; Andres, O.; Antonpoulou, M.; Burt, J. A.; Dougherty, W. W.; Edson, P. J.; El Kharraz, J.; Glavan, J.; Mamiit, R. J. (December 1, 2021). "Is the development of desalination compatible with sustainable development of the Arabian Gulf?". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 173 (Pt A). doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112940. ISSN 0025-326X. PMID 34537571 Check |pmid= value (help). Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  23. ↑ Thiel, Gregory P. (June 1, 2015). "Salty solutions". Physics Today. 68 (6): 66–67. doi:10.1063/PT.3.2828. ISSN 0031-9228.
  24. ↑ Zhou, Yuan. "Evaluating the costs of desalination and water transport". Water Resources Research. 41 (3): 03003. doi:10.1029/2004WR003749.
  25. ↑ "Evaluating the costs of desalination and water transport" (PDF). Hamburg University.
  26. ↑ "Israel refills the Sea of Galilee, supplying Jordan on the way".
  27. ↑ "Desalination: Unlocking Lessons from Yesterday's Solution (part 1)".
  28. ↑ Shammas, Nazih K. (2011). Water and wastewater engineering: water supply and wastewater removal. Lawrence K. Wang. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-41192-6. OCLC 639163996.
  29. ↑ Curto, Domenico; Franzitta, Vincenzo; Guercio, Andrea (2021). "A Review of the Water Desalination Technologies". Applied Sciences. 11 (2): 670. doi:10.3390/app11020670. hdl:10447/479195.
  30. ↑ "2.2 Desalination by distillation". www.oas.org.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Khawaji, Akili D.; Kutubkhanah, Ibrahim K.; Wie, Jong-Mihn (March 2008). "Advances in seawater desalination technologies". Desalination. 221 (1–3): 47–69. Bibcode:2008Desal.221...47K. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.067.
  32. 1 2 Warsinger, David M.; Mistry, Karan H.; Nayar, Kishor G.; Chung, Hyung Won; Lienhard V, John H. (2015). "Entropy Generation of Desalination Powered by Variable Temperature Waste Heat" (PDF). Entropy. 17 (12): 7530–7566. Bibcode:2015Entrp..17.7530W. doi:10.3390/e17117530.
  33. ↑ Al-Shammiri, M.; Safar, M. (November 1999). "Multi-effect distillation plants: state of the art". Desalination. 126 (1–3): 45–59. Bibcode:1999Desal.126...45A. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(99)00154-X.
  34. ↑ Warsinger, David M.; Tow, Emily W.; Swaminathan, Jaichander; Lienhard V, John H. (2017). "Theoretical framework for predicting inorganic fouling in membrane distillation and experimental validation with calcium sulfate" (PDF). Journal of Membrane Science. 528: 381–390. Bibcode:2017JMeSc.528..381W. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2017.01.031.
  35. ↑ Fritzmann, C; Lowenberg, J; Wintgens, T; Melin, T (2007). "State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination". Desalination. 216 (1–3): 1–76. Bibcode:2007Desal.216....1F. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.12.009.
  36. ↑ "Electron tomography reveals details of the internal microstructure of desalination membranes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (35): 8694–8699. 2018. doi:10.1073/pnas.1804708115. PMC 6126755. PMID 30104388.
  37. ↑ Membranverfahren – Grundlagen der Modul und Anlagenauslegung. Springer Verlag Berlin. 2007.
  38. ↑ Seawater Desalination – Impacts of Brine and Chemical Discharge on the Marine Environment. Sabine Lattemann, Thomas Höppner. January 1, 2003.
  39. ↑ "Access to sustainable water by unlimited resources". Archived from the original on 2023-08-04. Retrieved 2026-06-05.
  40. ↑ "Demonstration of the Natural Freeze-Thaw Process for the Desalination of Water From The Devils Lake Chain to Provide Water for the City of Devils Lake" (PDF).
  41. ↑ Van der Bruggen, Bart; Vandecasteele, Carlo (June 2002). "Distillation vs. membrane filtration: overview of process evolutions in seawater desalination". Desalination. 143 (3): 207–218. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(02)00259-X.
  42. ↑ Mustafa, Jawad; Mourad, Aya A. -H. I.; Al-Marzouqi, Ali H.; El-Naas, Muftah H. (June 1, 2020). "Simultaneous treatment of reject brine and capture of carbon dioxide". Desalination. 483. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  43. 1 2 3 Panagopoulos, Argyris (December 1, 2020). "A comparative study on minimum and actual energy consumption for the treatment of desalination brine". Energy (in Turanci). 212. Bibcode:2020Ene...21218733P. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2020.118733. ISSN 0360-5442. S2CID 224872161. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  44. ↑ Wilkinson, Robert C. (March 2007) "Analysis of the Energy Intensity of Water Supplies for West Basin Municipal Water District" Archived Disamba 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Table on p. 4
  45. ↑ "U.S. Electricity Consumption for Water Supply & Treatment" Archived ga Yuni, 17, 2013 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 1–4 Table 1-1, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Water & Sustainability (Volume 4), 2000
  46. ↑ Elimelech, Menachem (2012) "Seawater Desalination" Archived ga Faburairu, 23, 2014 at the Wayback Machine, p. 12 ff
  47. ↑ Semiat, R. (2008). "Energy Issues in Desalination Processes". Environmental Science & Technology. 42 (22): 8193–201. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.8193S. doi:10.1021/es801330u. PMID 19068794.
  48. ↑ "Optimizing Lower Energy Seawater Desalination" Archived ga Yuni, 18, 2015 at the Wayback Machine, p. 6 figure 1.2, Stephen Dundorf at the IDA World Congress November 2009
  49. ↑ "Membrane Desalination Power Usage Put In Perspective" Archived ga Afirilu, 24, 2014 at the Wayback Machine, American Membrane Technology Association (AMTA) April 2009
  50. ↑ Total Water Use in the United States
  51. ↑ "Energy Requirements of Desalination Processes", Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE). Retrieved June 24, 2013
  52. ↑ {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.desal.2005.03.095| title = Overview of hybrid desalination systems – current status and future prospects| journal

    Madaukar hanyoyi maimakon tsarkake ruwan teku

    Ƙara adana ruwa da ingantaccen amfani da shi ya kasance hanya mafi sauƙi da araha a wuraren da ake da damar inganta yadda ake amfani da ruwa.<ref>Gleick, Peter H., Dana Haasz, Christine Henges-Jeck, Veena Srinivasan, Gary Wolff, Katherine Kao Cushing, da Amardip Mann. (Nuwamba 2003.) "Waste not, want not: The potential for urban water conservation in California." (Website). Pacific Institute. An dawo da shi Satumba 20, 2007.
  53. ↑ Cooley, Heather, Peter H. Gleick, da Gary Wolff. (Yuni 2006.) Pacific Institute. An dawo da shi Satumba 20, 2007.
  54. ↑ Warsinger, David (2020). "Desalination Innovations Needed to Ensure Clean Water for the Next 50 Years". The Bridge. National Academy of Engineering. 50 (S).
  55. ↑ Gleick, Peter H., Heather Cooley, David Groves (Satumba 2005). "California water 2030: An efficient future.". Pacific Institute. An dawo da shi Satumba 20, 2007.
  56. ↑ Sun Belt Inc. Legal Documents Archived ga Faburairu, 18, 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Sunbeltwater.com. An dawo da shi Mayu 29, 2011.
  57. ↑ State Agencies Recommend Indoor Residential Water Use Standard to Legislature, California Department of Water Resources, November 30, 2021, Original, Archive
  58. ↑ Myth about huge California fines for shower and laundry usage won't die. Here's what's true, The Sacramento Bee, January 8, 2020
  59. ↑ Some in California have to limit their daily water usage to 55 gallons. Here's what that means for everyday activities, CBS News, December 8, 2021
  60. ↑ Zhang, S.X.; V. Babovic (2012). "A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty". Journal of Hydroinformatics. 14 (1): 13–29. Bibcode:2012JHyin..14...13Z. doi:10.2166/hydro.2011.078.
  61. ↑ "Finding Water in Mogadishu"IPS news item 2008
  62. 1 2 3 Sisson, Patrick (November 11, 2024). "Water, hold the salt". Sherwood News. Retrieved November 16, 2024.
  63. ↑ Tiwari, Anil Kr.; Tiwari, G. N. (January 1, 2006). Evaluating the Performance of Single Slope Passive Solar Still for Different Slope of Cover and Water Depths by Thermal Modeling: In Moderate Climatic Condition. ASME 2006 International Solar Energy Conference. ASMEDC. pp. 545–553. doi:10.1115/isec2006-99057. ISBN 0-7918-4745-4.</ref} !0.034 |- |Solar mara aiki (ingantaccen gangare ɗaya, Indiya) !0.024 |- |Solar mara aiki (ingantaccen gangare biyu, Indiya) !0.007 |- |Multi Stage Flash (MSF)<ref>Andrew Burger (June 20, 2019). "No Batteries Needed: Can Low-Cost Solar Desalination System "Green" Namibia's Desert Coast?". Solar Magazine (in Turanci). Retrieved April 5, 2020.</ref} !< 0.001 |- |Reverse Osmosis (Solar mai ƙarfi)<ref>"How the world could have 100 percent solar desalination". EurekAlert! (in Turanci). Retrieved April 5, 2020.[permanent dead link]</ref} !0.0008 |- |Reverse Osmosis (Photovoltaic power)<ref>Alsheghri, Ammar; Sharief, Saad Asadullah; Rabbani, Shahid; Aitzhan, Nurzhan Z. (August 1, 2015). "Design and Cost Analysis of a Solar Photovoltaic Powered Reverse Osmosis Plant for Masdar Institute". Energy Procedia. Clean, Efficient and Affordable Energy for a Sustainable Future: The 7th International Conference on Applied Energy (ICAE2015) (in Turanci). 75: 319–324. Bibcode:2015EnPro..75..319A. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.365. ISSN 1876-6102.
  64. ↑ "Nuclear Desalination". World Nuclear Association. January 2010. Archived from the original on December 19, 2011. Retrieved February 1, 2010.
  65. ↑ Barlow, Maude, da Tony Clarke, "Who Owns Water?" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429154115/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20020902/barlow |date=April 29, 2010 The Nation, 2002-09-02, via thenation.com. An dawo da shi Agusta 20, 2007.
  66. ↑ Over and drought: Why the end of Israel's water shortage is a secret, Haaretz, January 24, 2014
  67. ↑ [http://www.edie.net/news
  68. ↑ Water: Cooling Water Intakes (316b). water.epa.gov.
  69. ↑ Cooley, Heather; Gleick, Peter H. da Wolff, Gary (2006) Desalination, With a Grain of Salt. A California Perspective, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security. ISBN 1-893790-13-4
  70. 1 2 Sullivan, Michael (June 18, 2007) "Australia Turns to Desalination Amid Water Shortage". NPR.
  71. ↑ "Texas Standard for Sept. 4, 2025: Corpus Christi cancels controversial desalination project". Texas Standard (in Turanci). Retrieved December 10, 2025.
  72. ↑ Panagopoulos, Argyris; Haralambous, Katherine-Joanne (October 1, 2020). "Minimal Liquid Discharge (MLD) and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) strategies for wastewater management and resource recovery – Analysis, challenges and prospects". Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering (in Turanci). 8 (5). doi:10.1016/j.jece.2020.104418. ISSN 2213-3437. S2CID 225309628. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  73. ↑ Greenberg, Joel (March 20, 2014) "Israel no longer worried about its water supply, thanks to desalination plants" Archived ga Maris, 24, 2014 at the Wayback Machine, McClatchy DC
  74. ↑ Lattemann, Sabine; Höpner, Thomas (2008). "Environmental impact and impact assessment of seawater desalination". Desalination. 220 (1–3): 1. Bibcode:2008Desal.220....1L. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2007.03.009.
  75. ↑ n.a. (May 31, 2022). "Saudi Arabia announces new water projects worth $667 million". Smart Water Magazine (in Turanci). Retrieved April 19, 2024.
  76. ↑ Perth Seawater Desalination Plant, Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO), Kwinana. Water Technology. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
  77. ↑ PX Pressure Exchanger energy recovery devices daga Energy Recovery Inc. An Environmentally Green Plant Design Archived ga Maris, 27, 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Morning Edition, NPR, June 18, 2007
  78. ↑ "Sydney desalination plant to double in size," Australian Broadcasting Corporation, June 25, 2007. Retrieved August 20, 2007.
  79. ↑ Fact sheets, Sydney Water
  80. ↑ Kranhold, Kathryn. (January 17, 2008) Water, Water, Everywhere... The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
  81. ↑ Mike Lee. "Carlsbad desal plant, pipe costs near $1 billion". U-T San Diego.
  82. ↑ Sweet, Phoebe (March 21, 2008) Desalination gets a serious look. Las Vegas Sun.
  83. ↑ "The Changing Image Of Desalination". Archived from the original on October 7, 2007. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
  84. ↑ "EJP | News | France | French-run water plant launched in Israel". Ejpress.org. December 28, 2005. Archived from the original on August 1, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
  85. ↑ "Black & Veatch-Designed Desalination Plant Wins Global Water Distinction". Edie.net. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 21, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
  86. ↑ "Drought hopes hinge on desalination – World – NZ Herald News". Nzherald.co.nz. November 1, 2006. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
  87. ↑ "Tamil Nadu / Chennai News: Two sites for desalination plant identified". The Hindu. Chennai, India. January 17, 2007. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
  88. ↑ "Pakistan embarks on nuclear desalination". Archived from the original on December 16, 2008. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
  89. ↑ "Bermuda signs contract for seawater desalination plant". Caribbean Net News. January 20, 2007. Archived from the original on August 1, 2010. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
  90. ↑ Applause, At Last, For Desalination Plant, The Tampa Tribune, December 22, 2007.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsarkakewa&oldid=893803"