Jump to content

Tsaunin Kilimanjaro

Ƙara hanyoyin mahaɗar
Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.

Dutsen Kilimanjaro (/ ˌkɪlɪmənˈdʒɑːroʊ/) [1] dutsen mai aman wuta ne a Tanzaniya. Shi ne dutse mafi girma a Afirka kuma dutse mafi tsayi a kan matakin teku a duniya, yana da 5,895 m (19,341 ft) sama da matakin teku da 4,900 m (16,100 ft) sama da tudun sa. Har ila yau, shi ne dutsen mai aman wuta mafi girma a Gabashin Hemisphere kuma na huɗu mafi shaharar kololuwa a duniya.[2] Tsaunukan kudu da gabas na Kilimanjaro sun kasance gidan sarakunan Chagga har sai da Julius Nyerere ya shafe su a 1963. Ba a san asali da ma'anar sunan Kilimanjaro ba, amma yana iya nufin "dutse mai girma" ko "wanda ba zai iya hawa ba". Ko da yake an kwatanta shi a cikin majiyoyi na gargajiya, ɗan ƙasar Jamus Johannes Rebmann an ɗauka a matsayin Bature na farko da ya ba da rahoton kasancewar dutsen, a cikin 1848. Bayan yunƙurin Turai da yawa, Hans Meyer ya kai babban taron Kilimanjaro a 1889

Toponymy

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An yi sabani da asali da ma'anar sunan Kilimanjaro. Ko da yake mutanen Chagga na yankin Kilimanjaro ba su da sunan dutsen, amma suna kiran kololunsa biyu Kipoo da Kimawanze. Sunayen kololuwa—wanda aka fi sani da Kibo da Mawenzi—yana nufin “tabo” dangane da dusar ƙanƙara ta Kibo da “karshe saman” saboda ya zama mai wahala ko ba zai yiwu ba.” Ana iya samun -jaro daga njaare, tsuntsu, ko jyaro, ayari.[3]

Etymology na farko na Yammacin Yamma sun yi amfani da asalin asalin Swahili, tare da kilima da aka fassara da "dutse".[4] cikin 1860, Johann Ludwig Krapf ya rubuta cewa Swahilis sun yi amfani da sunan Kilimanjaro kuma yana nufin ko dai "dutse mai girma" ko "dutsen ayari", tare da fassarar njaro a matsayin girma ko jaro a matsayin "ayari"[5] 6] A cikin 1885, mai binciken ɗan ƙasar Scotland Joseph Thomson ya ba da rahoton "farin dutse" a matsayin madadin, tare da njro yana nuna fari.[[6] 7] An ba da rahoton wannan kuskure a matsayin kilima ta hanyar rikici tare da sunayen kololuwa biyu, Kipoo da Kimawenze.[7]

fari”[8] [9] bayani kuma shi ne cewa jyaro na iya komawa ga wani abin bautawa ko wani abin bautawa da ya tsare dutse daga masu keta[10]

A cikin 1880s, dutsen ya zama wani yanki na Jamus ta Gabashin Afirka kuma ana kiransa Kilima-Ndscharo a cikin Jamusanci.[11] cikin 1889, Hans Meyer ya kai koli mafi girma akan Kibo, wanda ya kira Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze na Kaiser Wilhelm.[12] juyin juya halin Zanzibar da samuwar Tanzaniya a cikin 1964, taron ya sake suna Uhuru Peak: “Kololuwar ‘Yanci” a cikin Swahili.[13] [14]

yanayin wurin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]


Mafi girman mazugi biyu: Kibo (saman) da Mawenzi (kasa) Kilimanjaro babban tsibiri ne na barci wanda ya ƙunshi mazugi masu aman wuta guda uku: Kibo, mafi girma; Mawenzi a 5,149 m (16,893 ft); [15] da Shira, mafi ƙasƙanci a 4,005 m (13,140 ft).[16] da Shira sun bace, yayin da Kibo ke kwance kuma zai iya sake fashewa.[17] [18]

Hukumar gwamnati, [19] da Ƙungiyar Ilimi, Kimiyya da Al'adu ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya [20] ta lissafa tsayin Uhuru Peak a matsayin 5,895 m (19,341 ft), bisa binciken Birtaniya a 1952.[21] auna tsayin a matsayin 5,892 m (19,331 ft) a cikin 1999, 5,902 m (19,364 ft) a cikin 2008, da 5,899 m (19,354 ft) a cikin 2014.[22]

Taswirar Kibo ".[23]An fara buga taswirar yawon shakatawa ta hanyar Binciken Ordnance a Ingila a cikin 1989 bisa tushen taswirar DOS a ma'auni na 1: 100,000, tare da 100 ft (30 m) tazara tazara, kamar yadda DOS 522.[24] West Col0 Productions ya samar da taswirar 19 tare da taswirar yawon bude ido. 1: 75,000, tare da 100 m (330 ft) tazara tazara; ya haɗa da taswirar saiti na Kibo da Mawenzi akan 1: 20,000 da 1: 30,000 bi da bi kuma tare da 50 m (160 ft) tazara tazara, wasu halaye masu yawa.

aman wuta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ba a san inda dutsen mai aman wuta na Kilimanjaro yake ba saboda ba a sami wani gagarumin zaizayar kasa da zai fallasa ɓangarorin da ke tattare da tsarin dutsen ba.[25]

ginin ya ruguje[26] Shira yana saman wani babban fili mai tsayi a tsayin mita 3,800 (12,500 ft), wanda zai iya zama cikekken caldera. Ragowar gefen caldera ya lalace sosai saboda yazawa. Kafin kafuwar caldera kuma ya fara yazawa, Shira na iya kasancewa tsakanin 4,900 da 5,200 m (16,100 da 17,100 ft) tsayi. Yawancin ya ƙunshi lafazin basaltic, tare da wasu pyroclastics.[27] sabuwar caldera ya kasance a cibiyar caldera.[[28] [29]]

Mawenzi da Kibo sun fara fashewa kimanin shekaru miliyan 1 da suka wuce.[30] Saddle ya raba su a tsayin mita 4,400 (14,400 ft).[31] 3 

Ƙananan duwatsun da aka yi kwanan watan a Mawenzi sun kai kimanin shekaru 448,000.[32]Mawenzi ya samar da tudun doki mai siffar doki tare da kololuwa da ginshiƙai da ke buɗewa zuwa arewa maso gabas, tare da siffa mai kama da hasumiya sakamakon zaizayar ƙasa mai zurfi da kuma ɗimbin ɗimbin maɗaukaki. Manyan cirques da yawa sun yanke cikin zobe kuma mafi girma daga cikin waɗannan suna zaune a saman Babban kwazazzabo na Barranco. [33] hakanan abin lura akwai Gabas da Yammacin Barrancos a gefen arewa maso gabashin dutsen. An kawar da mafi yawan gefen gabashin dutsen saboda zaizayar kasa. Mawenzi yana da babban kololuwa, Hasumiyar Neumann, 4,425 m (14,518 ft).[[34] [2[35] [36] Kibo shine mazugi mafi girma a kan dutsen kuma yana da nisan sama da kilomita 24 (mil 15) a tsayin Saddle Plateau. Ayyukan ƙarshe a nan, wanda aka yi kwanan watan zuwa shekaru 150,000-200,000 da suka wuce, ya haifar da kogin Kibo na yanzu. Kibo har yanzu yana da fumaroles masu fitar da iskar gas a cikin raminsa.[[37]] Kibo an lullube shi da mazugi mai simci da kusan mazugi mai tsayin daka 180 zuwa 200 m (590 zuwa 660 ft) a gefen kudu. Waɗannan ɓangarorin sun bayyana wani yanki mai faɗin kilomita 2.5 (mile 1.6) [38] wanda ya haifar da rugujewar taron.

A cikin wannan caldera akwai mazugi na ciki kuma a cikin ramin mazugi na ciki shine Reusch Crater, wanda gwamnatin Tanganyika a 1954 mai suna Gustav Otto Richard Reusch, a kan hawan dutsen a karo na 25 (cikin ƙoƙarin 65 a lokacin rayuwarsa)[39] [40] Ash Pit, zurfin mita 350 (1,150 ft) yana cikin kogin Reusch.[28] Kimanin shekaru 100,000 da suka gabata, wani yanki na kogin Kibo ya ruguje, ya haifar da yankin da ake kira Western Breach da Great Barranco.[41]

Kusan ci gaba na lava yana binne mafi yawan tsofaffin fasalulluka na ƙasa, ban da fallasa abubuwan da ke cikin Great West Notch da Kibo Barranco. Na farko yana fallasa kutse na syenite.[42] Kibo yana da manyan sifofin lava guda biyar:[43]

Daskarewa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Komaqar kankara na Kilimanjaro a cikin 1912-2018 Kwancen kankara na Kibo yana wanzuwa saboda Kilimanjaro ɗan rabe-rabe ne, ƙaton dutse wanda ya hau saman layin dusar ƙanƙara. Hul ɗin yana da bambanci kuma a gefuna ya rabu zuwa glaciers ɗaya. Babban yankin kankara yana katsewa da kasancewar kogon Kibo[44] 5  Gilashin kankara da filayen kankara ba sa nuna motsin motsi a kwance saboda karancin kauri yana hana manyan nakasa.[45] ]

[46]

Ci gaba da dusar ƙanƙara da ke rufe kusan 400 km2 (150 sq mi) zuwa tsayin 3,200 m (10,500 ft) ya rufe Kilimanjaro a lokacin Glacial Maximum a cikin zamanin Pleistocene (Babban glacial episode), wanda ya zarce koli na Kibo da Mawenzi[47]] [48] [49] saboda yanayin bushewa na musamman a lokacin matashin Dryas na gaba, filayen kankara a Kilimanjaro na iya zama batattu a kusan shekaru 11,500 BP.[50] i e cores da aka karɓa daga Kilimanjaro's Northern Ice Field (NIF) yana nuna cewa glaciers a can suna da shekaru basal na kimanin shekaru 11,700, [33] ko da yake nazarin kankajqra da aka ɗauka a cikin 2011 daga tsaunin da aka fallasa a tsaye a cikin NIF yana goyan bayan shekarun da suka kara zuwa shekaru 800 kawai BP.[51] hYawan hazo mafi girma a farkon zamanin Holocene (shekaru 11,500 BP) ya ba da damar hawan kankara don yin gyara.[52] Gilashin kankara sun tsira daga fari a cikin ƙarni uku wanda ya fara kusan shekaru 4,000 BP.[> [53] Hardy, D. R.; Kehrwald, N.; Davis, M.; Cozzi, G.; Turetta, C.; Barbante, C.; Thompson, L. G. (2014). "Deglaciated areas of Kilimanjaro as a source of volcanic trace elements deposited on the ice cap during the late Holocene". Quaternary [54]

Rubutun farko

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙila dutsen ya kasance sananne ga waɗanda ba Afirka ba tun zamanin da. Rahoton na matukin jirgi da Ptolemy ya rubuta ya ambaci "dutsen wata" da kuma tafkin ruwa na kogin Nilu, wanda zai iya nuna Kilimanjaro, ko da yake akwai bayanan tarihi da ke akwai bai ba da damar bambancewa tsakanin wasu a Gabashin Afirka kamar Dutsen Kenya, tsaunukan Habasha, tsaunin Virunga, tsaunin Rwenzori, da Kilimanjaro. Kafin Ptolemy, Aeschylus da Herodotus suna magana game da "Masar da dusar ƙanƙara ke renon" da kuma wani marmaro tsakanin duwatsu biyu, bi da bi. Daya daga cikin wadannan ya ambaci wasu dogayen tsaunuka guda biyu a yankunan bakin teku tare da wani kwari da alamun wuta a tsakaninsu. Martín Fern=ández de Enciso, wani matafiyi ɗan ƙasar Sipaniya zuwa birnin Mombasa wanda ya sami bayanai game da cikin gida daga ayarin ƴan ƙasar, ya ce a cikin littafinsa Summa de Geografía (1519) cewa yammacin birnin Mombasa "yana tsaye Dutsen Olympus na Habasha, wanda yake da tsayin daka, kuma bayansa akwai tsaunin wata, wanda a cikinsa akwai maɓuɓɓugar ruwa. Nil"[55] [56] [57]. 

Binciken Turai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Misalin Jamusanci na Kilimanjaro a cikin 1911 Mishan Jamus Johannes Rebmann na Mombasa da Johann Krapf su ne Turawa na farko da aka san sun yi ƙoƙarin isa dutsen. A cewar wani ɗan ƙasar Ingila Halford Mackinder da ɗan ƙasar Ingila Harry Johnston, Rebmann a cikin 1848 shine Bature na farko da ya ba da rahoton wanzuwar Kilimanjaro.[58]] [59] Meyer ya yi iƙirarin cewa Rebmann ya fara zuwa Afirka ne a shekara ta 1846 kuma ya ɗauko littafin littafin Rebmann na ranar 11 ga Mayu 1848 yana cewa,cikin watan Agustan 1861, jami'in Prussian Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken tare da masanin ilimin kibo na Ingilishi Richard Thornton [60] sun yi ƙoƙarin hawan Kibo amma "ba su yi nisa fiye da 2,500 m (8,200 ft) ba saboda rashin kyawun yanayi" [61] 92   Disamba 16 [62] tare. tare da Otto Kersten, ya kai tsayin mita 4,300 (14,000 ft).[63]

Na zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

"Za mu kunna kyandir a saman Dutsen Kilimanjaro wanda zai haskaka bayan iyakokinmu, yana ba da bege a inda akwai yanke ƙauna, ƙauna inda akwai ƙiyayya, da mutunci inda a baya akwai kawai wulakanci."

- Oehler da Klute sun ci gaba da hawan Kibo na uku, ta hanyar Drygalski Glacier, kuma suka gangaro ta hanyar Yaƙin Yamma.[64]

A cikin 1989, kwamitin shirya bikin shekaru 100 na hawan farko ya yanke shawarar ba da takaddun shaida bayan mutuwa ga jagororin ƙofofin Afirka waɗanda suka raka Meyer da Purtscheller.[65] An yi tunanin mutum ɗaya a cikin hotuna ko takaddun balaguron 1889 ya Dae da wani mazaunin Marangu, Yohani Kinyala Lauwo.[60] Lauwo bai san shekarunsa ba, [66] kuma bai tuna Meyer ko Purtscheller ba. Ya tuna shiga balaguron Kilimanjaro wanda ya haɗa da wani likitan ɗan ƙasar Holland da ke zaune kusa da dutsen, kuma bai sa takalmi a lokacin hawan.[67]Lauwo ya yi ikirarin cewa ya hau dutsen sau uku kafin a fara yakin duniya na daya[[68] kwamitin ya kammala cewa ya kasance memba na tawagar Meyer don haka dole ne a haife shi a shekara ta 1871.[69] ] Lauwo ya rasu a ranar 10 ga Mayu 1996, shekaru 107 bayan hawan farko. Wani lokaci ana ba da shawarar cewa shi abokin farko ne na Kilimanjaro.[70]


4,000 m (13,000 ft)[71] 11  A cikin watan Yuni 1887, Hungarian Count Sámuel Teleki da Laftanar Austrian Ludwig von Höhnel sun yi ƙoƙarin hawan dutsen. Da yake gabatowa daga sirdi tsakanin Mawenzi da Kibo, Höhnel ya tsaya a kan mita 4,950 (16,240 ft), amma Teleki ya ci gaba har sai da ya kai dusar ƙanƙara a mita 5,300 (17,400 ft).[72] daga baya a cikin 1887, farfesa a fannin ilimin geology na Jamus Hans Meyer ya isa gefen ƙananan kankara a Kibo, inda aka tilasta masa ya koma baya saboda rashin kayan aikin da ake bukata don ci gaba a cikin kankara. Alex Stewart (9 September 2010).[73] Yayin da Abbott ya juya baya a baya, Ehlers da farko ya yi iƙirarin kai ga kololuwar koli, amma bayan suka mai tsanani kan da'awar, ya janye shi.[74]

Fauna da flora

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

[75] [76] Manya-manyan dabbobi ba safai ba ne a Kilimanjaro kuma sun fi yawa a cikin dazuzb an azuka da ƙananan sassa na dutsen. Giwaye da na Cape buffaloes na daga cikin dabbobin da za su iya zama masu haɗari ga masu tattaki. Bushbucks, hawainiya, dik-diks, duikers, mongooses, sunbirds, da warthogs kuma an ba da rahoton. Ana ganin zebra, damisa da kuraye a kai-tsaye a kan tudun Shhha.[77] Musamman nau'ikan da ke da alaƙa da dutsen sun haɗa da Kilimanjaro shrew[78] da hawainiya Kinyongia tavetana.[79] [80] [81] [82] <> A cikin ƙasan tudu ana noman masara da wake da furen sundudduka da kuma a gefen yamma alkama. Akwai ragowar tsoffin ciyayi na savanna tare da Acacia, Combretum, Terminalia da Grewia. Tsakanin 1,000 m (3,300 ft) da 1,800 m (5,900 ft), kofi yana bayyana a matsayin wani ɓangare na "Gidan gida na Chagga" kuma ya bambanta da ciyayi a wurare mafi girma. A kan gangaren kudu, dazuzzukan montane na farko sun ƙunshi Ocotea usambarensis da ferns da epiphytes; a cikin dazuzzukan gajimare Podocarpus latifolius, Hagenia abyssinica da Erica excelsa suna girma, da kuma mosses masu dogaro da hazo. A kan ɓangarorin ɓangarorin arewacin zaitun, Croton-Calodendrum, Cassipourea, da Juniperus suna samar da dazuzzukan domin ƙara girma. Tsakanin 3,100 m (10,200 ft) da 3,900 m (12,800 ft) ya ta'allaka ne da Erica daji da wuraren zafi, sannan Helichrysum ya biyo baya, har zuwa 4,500 m (14,800 ft).[83][84] ] An lura da neophytes, ciki har da Poa annua.[85] [86] [87] [88] [89] [90]

Rikodin hawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hanyoyin hawan hawa Mutum mafi tsufa da ya hau Dutsen Kilimanjaro ita ce Anne Lorimor, mai shekaru 89 da kwanaki 37, wacce ta kai Uhuru Peak da karfe 3:14 na yamma. lokacin gida ranar 18 ga Yuli, 2019.[[91] [92] Mutumin da ya fi dattijon da zai yi taron kolin shi ne Ba’amurke Fred Dishelhorst, wanda ya kai kololuwa a ranar 19 ga Yuli 2017 yana da shekaru 88 da haihuwa.[93] mutum na biyu mafi tsufa da ya hau dutsen shine Ba’amurke Robert Wheeler, wanda ya cika shekaru 85 da kwanaki 201 lokacin da ya yi taro a ranar 2 ga Oktoba [94] Maxwell J. Ojerholm na Massachusetts, Amurka, ya kai Uhuru Peak, babban taron koli na gaskiya, ba tare da taimako ba, yana da shekaru goma, a ranar 4 ga Yuli, 2009, ya ɗauki hanyar Machame mai wahala. Colin M. Barker na Missouri, Amurka, daga baya 2019.[95] 1] Duk da ƙayyadaddun shekarun shekaru 10 don izinin hawa hawa, Keats Boyd daga Los Angeles ya kai taron a ranar 21 ga Janairu 2008 yana ɗan shekara 7.[96] [97] Montannah Kenney daga Texas ya daidaita wannan rikodin a cikin Maris 2018 da kuma a cikin Yuli 2018 ta Coaltan Tanner daga New Mexico.[98] [99] [100] 94] Jagoran tsaunukan Swiss-Ecudorian Karl Egloff ne ya rubuta hawan mafi sauri da tafiya mafi sauri. A ranar 13 ga Agusta 2014, bayan ya jagoranci wata ƙungiya zuwa taron a kwanakin baya, ya gudu daga Ƙofar Umbwe zuwa saman cikin sa'o'i 4 da mintuna 56 kuma ya koma Ƙofar Mweka a 1,630 m (5,350 ft) a cikin jimlar sa'o'i 6, mintuna 42 da 24 seconds.[101] <ref>Matt Hart, Where in the World Did Karl Egloff Come From? Archived 1 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Outside 5, Mar 2015</ref.

manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Kilimanjaro, Mount". Oxford Dictionaries UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 16 July 2015. "Kilimanjaro, Mount". Lexico. Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2014
  2. ↑ citation needed
  3. ↑ Hutchinson 1965, p. 65
  4. ↑ Hutchinson 1965, p. 65
  5. ↑ Hutchinson 1965, p. 65
  6. ↑ Hutchinson 1965, p. 65
  7. ↑ Hutchinson 1965, p. 65
  8. ↑ Hutchinson 1965, p. 65
  9. ↑ Krapf & Ravenstein 1860
  10. ↑ Hutchinson 1965, p. 65
  11. ↑ Briggs, Philip (1996). Guide to Tanzania, 2nd edition. Bradt Guides.
  12. ↑ BGerman Contributions to the Cartography of South West and East Africa from Mid-19th Century to World War I
  13. ↑ Dangar, D. F. O. (1965). "Dangar Alpine Notes" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 70 (310–311): 328. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
  14. ↑ Spink, P. C. (1945). "Further Notes on the Kibo Inner Crater and Glaciers of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya". The Geographical Journal. 106 (5/6): 210–216. Bibcode:1945GeogJ.106..210S. doi:10.2307/1788958. JSTOR 1788958
  15. ↑ Archived
  16. ↑ Cullen, Nicolas J.; Mölg, Thomas; Kaser, Georg; Hussein, Khalid; Steffen, Konrad; Hardy, Douglas R. (2006). "Kilimanjaro Glaciers: Recent areal extent from satellite data and new interpretation of observed 20th-century retreat rates". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (16): L16502. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3316502C. doi:10.1029/2006GL027084. S2CID 14421037
  17. ↑ Cullen, Nicolas J.; Mölg, Thomas; Kaser, Georg; Hussein, Khalid; Steffen, Konrad; Hardy, Douglas R. (2006). "Kilimanjaro Glaciers: Recent areal extent from satellite data and new interpretation of observed 20th-century retreat rates". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (16): L16502. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3316502C. doi:10.1029/2006GL027084. S2CID 14421037
  18. ↑ Kilimanjaro Map and tourist Guide
  19. ↑ Sharaf, Yasir (26 April 2022). "8 Common Mistakes I Wish I Knew Before Climbing Mount Kilimanjaro As A Beginner | How To Climb Mount Kilimanjaro?". XPATS International. Archived from the original on 25 June 2024. Retrieved 6 August 2022
  20. ↑ "Kilimanjaro National Park". World Heritage List. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  21. ↑ Dos Santos. "The New Digital Orthometric Elevation Model of Kilimanjaro" (PDF). CEUR Workshop Proceedings. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  22. ↑ Dos Santos. "The New Digital Orthometric Elevation Model of Kilimanjaro" (PDF). CEUR Workshop Proceedings. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  23. ↑ Pascal SRIGUEY & Nicolas J. CULLEN (2014). "A Century of Photogrammetry on Kilimanjaro" (PDF). Engaging the Challenges – Enhancing the Relevance. FIG Congress 2014. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  24. ↑ Stewart (23 April 2012). Kilimanjaro: A Complete Trekker's Guide: Preparations, practicalities and trekking routes to the 'Roof of Africa'. Cicerone Press Limited. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-84965-622-1. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  25. ↑ Wilcockson, W. H. (1956). "Preliminary Notes on the Geology of Kilimanjaro". Geological Magazine. 93 (3): 218–228. Bibcode:1956GeoM...93..218W. doi:10.1017/S0016756800066590. S2CID 128393681
  26. ↑ "New K Ar age determinations of Kilimanjaro volcano in the North Tanzanian diverging rift, East Africa"
  27. ↑ Kilimanjaro Geology". Tranquil Kilimanjaro. Retrieved 25 February 2024.,
  28. ↑ "New K Ar age determinations of Kilimanjaro volcano in the North Tanzanian diverging rift, East Africa"
  29. ↑ 10.1017/S0016756800066590
  30. ↑ "New K Ar age determinations of Kilimanjaro volcano in the North Tanzanian diverging rift, East Africa"
  31. ↑ Gillman, C. (1923). "An Ascent of Kilimanjaro". The Geographical Journal. 61 (1): 1–21. Bibcode:1923GeogJ..61....1G. doi:10.2307/1780513. JSTOR 1780513,
  32. ↑ "New K Ar age determinations of Kilimanjaro volcano in the North Tanzanian diverging rift, East Africa"
  33. ↑ Wilcockson, W. H. (1956). "Preliminary Notes on the Geology of Kilimanjaro". Geological Magazine. 93 (3): 218–228. Bibcode:1956GeoM...93..218W. doi:10.1017/S0016756800066590. S2CID 128393681.,
  34. ↑ "New K Ar age determinations of Kilimanjaro volcano in the North Tanzanian diverging rift, East Africa"
  35. ↑ Wilcockson, W. H. (1956). "Preliminary Notes on the Geology of Kilimanjaro". Geological Magazine. 93 (3): 218–228. Bibcode:1956GeoM...93..218W. doi:10.1017/S0016756800066590. S2CID 128393681.
  36. ↑ John Barry Dawson (2008). The Gregory Rift Valley and Neogene-recent Volcanoes of Northern Tanzania. Geological Society of London. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-86239-267-0. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2016
  37. ↑ "New K Ar age determinations of Kilimanjaro volcano in the North Tanzanian diverging rift, East Africa"
  38. ↑ 1780513
  39. ↑ "Gustav Otto Richard Reusch". Biographies. The Center for Volga German Studies at Concordia University. Archived from the original on 24 October 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015
  40. ↑ Richard Leider (10 May 2010). The Power of Purpose: Find Meaning, Live Longer, Better. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-60509-527-1. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  41. ↑ Richard Leider (10 May 2010). The Power of Purpose: Find Meaning, Live Longer, Better. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-60509-527-1. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  42. ↑ 10.1017/S0016756800066590
  43. ↑ Nonnotte, Philippe; Guillou, Hervé; Le Gall, Bernard; Benoit, Mathieu; Cotten, Joseph; Scaillet, Stéphane (2008). "New K Ar age determinations of Kilimanjaro volcano in the North Tanzanian diverging rift, East Africa" (PDF). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 173 (1): 99. Bibcode:2008JVGR..173...99N. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.12.042. S2CID 18476938. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
  44. ↑ Gillman, C. (1923). "An Ascent of Kilimanjaro". The Geographical Journal. 61 (1): 1–21. Bibcode:1923GeogJ..61....1G. doi:10.2307/1780513. JSTOR 1780513.
  45. ↑ Gabrielli, P.; Hardy, D. R.; Kehrwald, N.; Davis, M.; Cozzi, G.; Turetta, C.; Barbante, C.; Thompson, L. G. (2014). "Deglaciated areas of Kilimanjaro as a source of volcanic trace elements deposited on the ice cap during the late Holocene". Quaternary Science Reviews. 93: 1–10. Bibcode:2014QSRv...93....1G. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.03.0
  46. ↑ Mark, Bryan G.; Osmaston, Henry A. (2008). "Quaternary glaciation in Africa: Key chronologies and climatic implications". Journal of Quaternary Science. 23 (6–7): 589–608. Bibcode:2008JQS....23..589M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.529.4209. doi:10.1002/jqs.1222. S2CID 130605599.
  47. ↑ Hussein, Khalid; Steffen, Konrad; Hardy, Douglas R. (2006). "Kilimanjaro Glaciers: Recent areal extent from satellite data and new interpretation of observed 20th-century retreat rates". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (16): L16502. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3316502C. doi:10.1029/2006GL027084. S2CID 14421037
  48. ↑ yhoung, James A. T. "Glaciers of the Middle East and Africa" (PDF). U.S. Geological Professional Survey. U.S. Department of the Interior. pp. G61, G58, G59 G62. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2012.
  49. ↑ Gabrielli, P.; Hardy, D. R.; Kehrwald, N.; Davis, M.; Cozzi, G.; Turetta, C.; Barbante, C.; Thompson, L. G. (2014). "Deglaciated areas of Kilimanjaro as a source of volcanic trace elements deposited on the ice cap during the late Holocene". Quaternary Science Reviews. 93: 1–10. Bibcode:2014QSRv...93....1G. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.03.007.
  50. ↑ Hardy, D. R.; Kehrwald, N.; Davis, M.; Cozzi, G.; Turetta, C.; Barbante, C.; Thompson, L. G. (2014). "Deglaciated areas of Kilimanjaro as a source of volcanic trace elements deposited on the ice cap during the late Holocene". Quaternary Science Reviews. 93: 1–10. Bibcode:2014QSRv...93....1G. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.03.007.
  51. ↑ "Kilimanjaro Ice Core Records: Evidence of Holocene Climate Change in Tropical Africa"
  52. ↑ Thompson, L. G.; Brecher, H. H.; Mosley-Thompson, E.; Hardy, D. R.; Mark, B. G. (2009). "Glacier loss on Kilimanjaro continues unabated". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (47): 19770–5. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10619770T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906029106. PMC 2771743. PMID 19884500.
  53. ↑ Thompson, L. G.; Brecher, H. H.; Mosley-Thompson, E.; Hardy, D. R.; Mark, B. G. (2009). "Glacier loss on Kilimanjaro continues unabated". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (47): 19770–5. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10619770T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906029106. PMC 2771743. PMID 19884500.
  54. ↑ Science Reviews. 93: 1–10. Bibcode:2014QSRv...93....1G. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.03.007.
  55. ↑ S2CID
  56. ↑ "Across East African glaciers: an account of the first ascent of Kilimanjaro"
  57. ↑  Cameron M. Burns (2006). Kilimanjaro & East Africa: A Climbing and Trekking Guide. The Mountaineers Books. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-89886-604-9. Retrieved 4 October 2016
  58. ↑ Mackinder, Halford (1900). "A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya, British East Africa". The Geographical Journal. 15 (5): 453–476. Bibcode:1900GeogJ..15..453M. doi:10.2307/1774261. JSTOR 1774261. Archived from the original on 25 June 2024. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  59. ↑ ""Kilimanjaro", authored by Sir. H. H. Johnston, in The Twentieth Century, published by Nineteenth Century and After, printed by Spottswoode, Ballantine & Co. Ltd., London, June 1916, volume 79, page 879". 1916. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
  60. ↑ Mr Thornton, I presume?: Everyone has heard of Livingstone, but the name of Richard Thornton, Livingstone's geologist, has been completely forgotten. Richard Boak tells his sad story". www.geolsoc.org.uk. August 2011. Archived from the original on 24 February 2016. Retrieved 6 February 2021
  61. ↑ "Across East African glaciers: an account of the first ascent of Kilimanjaro"
  62. ↑ Kilimanjaro and its People: A History of the Wachagga, Their Laws, Customs and Legends, Together with Some Account of the Highest Mountain in Africa
  63. ↑ "Baron Carl Claus von der Decken – 1833–1865 – Collectors in East Africa – 31"
  64. ↑ Stewart (9 September 2010). Kilimanjaro: A Complete Trekker's Guide: Preparations, Practicalities and Trekking Routes to the 'Roof of Africa'.Cicerone Press Limited. ISBN 978-1-84965-071-7. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 4 an gOctober 2016.
  65. ↑ "Meyer And Purtscheller Were Not Alone". Tanzanian Affairs. 1 January 1990. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  66. ↑ "Meyer And Purtscheller Were Not Alone". Tanzanian Affairs. 1 January 1990. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  67. ↑ "Meyer And Purtscheller Were Not Alone". Tanzanian Affairs. 1 January 1990. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  68. ↑ "Meyer And Purtscheller Were Not Alone". Tanzanian Affairs. 1 January 1990. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  69. ↑ Meyer And Purtscheller Were Not Alone". Tanzanian Affairs. 1 January 1990. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  70. ↑ "The Old Man of Mt. Kilimanjaro"
  71. ↑
    Hans Meyer (1891). "Across East African glaciers: an account of the first ascent of Kilimanjaro". Nature. 44 (1129): 149–150. Bibcode:1891Natur..44..149.. doi:10.1038/044149b0. hdl:2027/hvd.32044009699778. S2CID 45006599. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  72. ↑ The amazing story of the first woman on Kilimanjaro". Altezza Travel. Retrieved 14 February 2025.
  73. ↑ Kilimanjaro: A Complete Trekker's Guide: Preparations, Practicalities and Trekking Routes to the 'Roof of Africa'. Cicerone Press Limited. ISBN 978-1-84965-071-7. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  74. ↑ Alex Stewart (9 September 2010). Kilimanjaro: A Complete Trekker's Guide: Preparations, Practicalities and Trekking Routes to the 'Roof of Africa'. Cicerone Press Limited. ISBN 978-1-84965-071-7. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  75. ↑ Gillman, C. (1923). "An Ascent of Kilimanjaro". The Geographical Journal. 61 (1): 1–21. Bibcode:1923GeogJ..61....1G. doi:10.2307/1780513. JSTOR 1780513.
  76. ↑ "Kilimanjaro National Park Celebrating the Golden Anniversary in Biodiversity Conservation and Tourism"
  77. ↑ Cameron M. Burns (2006). Kilimanjaro & East Africa: A Climbing and Trekking Guide. The Mountaineers Books. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-89886-604-9. Retrieved 4 October 2016
  78. ↑ "Kinyongia tavetana (STEINDACHNER, 1891)". The Reptile Database. Zoological Museum Hamburg. Archived frovaggagm the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  79. ↑ Kinyongia tavetana (STEINDACHNER, 1891)". The Reptile Database. Zoological Museum Hamburg. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  80. ↑ Hemp, Andreas (2006). "Continuum or zonation? Altitudinal gradients in the forest vegetation of Mt. Kilimanjaro". Plant Ecology. 184 (1): 27–42. Bibcode:2006PlEco.184...27H. doi:10.1007/s11258-005-9049-4. S2CID 21864541.
  81. ↑ "Mt. Kilimanjaro Routes: The Advantages and Disadvantage of All Mount Kilimanjaro Climbing Routes"
  82. ↑ Altitudinal gradients in the forest vegetation of Mt. Kilimanjaro". Plant Ecology. 184 (1): 27–42. Bibcode:2006PlEco.184...27H. doi:10.1007/s11258-005-9049-4. S2CID 21864541.
  83. ↑ Schüler, Lisa; Hemp, Andreas; Zech, Wolfgang; Behling, Hermann (2012). "Vegetation, climate and fire-dynamics in East Africa inferred from the Maundi crater pollen record from Mt Kilimanjaro during the last glacial-interglacial cycle". Quaternary Science Reviews. 39: 1–13. Bibcode:2012QSRv...39....1S. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.02.003.
  84. ↑ L. A. Bruijnzeel; F. N. Scatena; L. S. Hamilton (6 January 2011). Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Science for Conservation and Management. Cambridge University Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-1-139-49455-7. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  85. ↑ Schüler, Lisa; Hemp, Andreas; Zech, Wolfgang; Behling, Hermann (2012). "Vegetation, climate and fire-dynamics in East Africa inferred from the Maundi crater pollen record from Mt Kilimanjaro during the last glacial-interglacial cycle". Quaternary Science Reviews. 39: 1–13. Bibcode:2012QSRv...39....1S. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.02.003.
  86. ↑ Ofcansky, Thomas P.; Yeager, Rodger (1997). Historical dictionary of Tanzania. African historical dictionaries (2nd ed.). Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-8108-3244-2.
  87. ↑ Ghazali Musa; James Higham; Anna Thompson-Carr, eds. (5 June 2015). Mountaineering Tourism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-66874-9. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  88. ↑ Ian Christie; Eneida Fernandes; Hannah Messerli; Louise Twining-Ward (2014). Tourism in Africa: Harnessing Tourism for Growth and Improved Livelihoods. World Bank Publications. ISBN 978-1-4648-0197-6. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
  89. ↑ "The official site of the Tanzania National Parks – Latest news"
  90. ↑ "Kilimanjaro airport upgrade to double its capacity"
  91. ↑ "Oldest person to climb Mount Kilimanjaro". guinnessworldrecords.com. Archived from the original on 5 October 2024. Retrieved 3 December 2019
  92. ↑ Anne Lorimor breaks record twice on Mount Kilimanjaro". ultimatekilimanjaro.com. 26 July 2019. Archived from the original on 5 October 2024. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  93. ↑ "Oldest man climbs Kilimanjaro". peakplanet.com. 23 July 2017. Archived from the original on 5 October 2024. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  94. ↑ Amazing Kilimanjaro Records". Mount Kilimanjaro Facts. Climb Kilimanjaro Guide. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  95. ↑ Amazing Kilimanjaro Records". Mount Kilimanjaro Facts. Climb Kilimanjaro Guide. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  96. ↑ Amazing Kilimanjaro Records". Mount Kilimanjaro Facts. Climb Kilimanjaro Guide. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  97. ↑ "Youngest person to climb Mount Kilimanjaro via the Western Breach route"
  98. ↑ Amazing Kilimanjaro Records". Mount Kilimanjaro Facts. Climb Kilimanjaro Guide. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  99. ↑ Girl Who Wanted to 'Be Closer to Her Dad' Becomes Youngest Female to Hike Mount Kilimanjaro". Good News Network. 10 April 2018. Archived from the original on 12 April 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  100. ↑ "The youngest Person to Climb Mount Kilimanjaro | Seven Brave Children". 19 October 2022. Archived from the original on 5 October 2024.
  101. ↑ lbuquerque boy becomes youngest ever to summit Mt. Kilimanjaro". 1 November 2018. Archived from the original on 2 December 2022.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsaunin_Kilimanjaro&oldid=634018"