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Tsoma bakin Cuba a Angola

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Infotaula d'esdevenimentTsoma bakin Cuba a Angola

Iri military operation (en) Fassara
Bangare na history of Cuba (en) Fassara
Kwanan watan 1975 –  1991
Wuri Angola

Cuba ya shiga tsakani a Angola (mai suna Operation Carlota) ya fara ne a ranar 5 ga Nuwamba 1975, lokacin da Cuba ta aika da dakarun yaki don tallafawa Kwaminisanci na People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) a kan hadin gwiwar yamma National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), da National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). Harkokin shiga tsakani ya zo ne bayan barkewar Yaƙin basasar Angola, wanda ya faru bayan an ba tsohon mulkin mallaka na Portugal 'yancin kai bayan yakin neman' yancin Angola. Yaƙin basasa da ba shi da muhimmanci a baya ya zama yaƙi tsakanin Gabashin Gabas (wanda Tarayyar Soviet ta jagoranta) da Yammacin Yamma (wanda Amurka ta jagorantar). Afirka ta Kudu da Amurka sun goyi bayan UNITA da FNLA, yayin da kasashe masu kwaminisanci suka goyi bayan MPLA.

Kimanin sojojin Cuban 4,000 ne suka yi yaki don dawo da ci gaba mai fafutuka uku ta sojojin SADF, UNITA, FNLA, da sojojin Zaire . [1] Daga nan ne sojojin Cuba 18,000 suka ba da gudummawa wajen fatattakar sojojin FNLA a arewa da UNITA a kudancin kasar. [1] Sojojin Cuba sun taimaka wa MPLA wajen murkushe 'yan aware daga Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC). A shekarar 1976, kasancewar sojojin Cuba a Angola ya kai kusan dakaru 36,000. Ta hanyar korar sojojin Afirka ta Kudu da ke zaman saniyar ware a duniya, Cuba ta sami damar tabbatar da iko da dukkan manyan lardunan Angola. [2] Bayan janyewar kasashen Zaire da Afirka ta Kudu, sojojin Cuba sun ci gaba da zama a Angola domin marawa gwamnatin MPLA baya da UNITA a ci gaba da yakin basasa. Afirka ta Kudu ta shafe shekaru goma masu zuwa tana kaddamar da hare-haren bama-bamai da hare-hare daga sansanonin ta a Afirka ta Kudu ta Kudu zuwa kudancin Angola, yayin da UNITA ta yi ta kai hare-hare, da kai hare-hare, da kuma muzgunawa sassan Cuban.

A cikin 1988, sojojin Cuba, wanda yanzu adadin dakaru 55,000 ne, suka shiga tsakani don dakile wani bala'i na soji a wani hari da sojojin Soviet na 'yantar da Angola (FAPLA) suka jagoranta a kan UNITA, wanda har yanzu Afirka ta Kudu ke samun goyon baya, wanda ya kai ga yakin Cuito Cuanavale da bude wani gaba na biyu. An yi la'akari da wannan sauyi a matsayin babban abin da ya sa aka cimma nasarar tattaunawar zaman lafiya da aka yi a birnin New York na shekarar 1988, yarjejeniyar da sojojin Cuba da na Afirka ta Kudu suka fice daga Angola yayin da Afirka ta Kudu ta samu 'yancin kai daga Afirka ta Kudu. Haɗin gwiwar sojojin Cuba a Angola ya ƙare a cikin 1991 yakin basasar Angolan ya ci gaba har zuwa 2002. Tsakanin 1975 zuwa 1991, mutanen Cuban da suka mutu a Angola sun kai kusan 10,000 da suka mutu, sun ji rauni, ko suka ɓace.

Fage

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Kasawar Yarjejeniyar Alvor da Yakin Basasa

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Juyin juya halin Carnation ya fara a Portugal a ranar 25 ga Afrilu 1974. Juyin juya halin ya bai wa duniya mamaki tare da kama masu fafutukar 'yancin kai a kasashen Afirka na karshe na Portugal ba tare da shiri ba. Sakamakon tattaunawar da aka yi tsakanin Portugal da 'yan tawayen Mozambik, Mozambique ta sami 'yancin kai a ranar 25 ga Yuni 1974, amma ikon Angola ya ci gaba da jayayya tsakanin ƙungiyoyin 'yancin kai guda uku: MPLA, FNLA, da UNITA a Angola - daidai da Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) a Cabinda .

Har zuwa ’yancin kai, ƙungiyoyin sun fi mayar da hankali ne wajen yaƙi da ‘yan mulkin mallaka kuma tun farko ba su da wata ƙawance mai kyau. Tare da bacewar Portugal a matsayin abokan gaba, an ba da fifikon kabilanci da na akida. An riga an gwabza fada tsakanin mutanen uku a watan Nuwamba na shekarar 1974, wanda ya fara a Luanda kuma cikin sauri ya bazu a fadin kasar Angola. Sabuwar gwamnatin Portuguese ta hagu ba ta nuna sha'awar shiga tsakani ba amma sau da yawa tana goyon bayan MPLA. Nan da nan kasar ta fada cikin bangarori daban-daban na tasiri, FNLA ta kwace arewacin Angola da UNITA a kudu ta tsakiya. MPLA galibi tana rike da bakin teku, kudu maso gabas mai nisa, kuma, a cikin Nuwamba 1974 ta sami iko da Cabinda. Rashin haɗin kan manyan ƙungiyoyi uku ya jinkirta mika mulki. Yarjejeniyar Alvor, wadda uku da Portugal suka sanya hannu a ranar 15 ga Janairu, sun tabbatar da cewa ba su da tushe mai tushe na hanya. Gwamnatin rikon kwarya da yarjejeniyar ta tanada ta kunshi manyan masu fafutukar 'yancin kai guda uku da Portugal. An rantsar da shi a ranar 31 ga Janairun 1975; An sanya ranar samun 'yancin kai a ranar 11 ga Nuwamba 1975, a daidai wannan rana da tsagaita wuta. FLEC ba ta cikin yarjejeniyar saboda ta yi yaƙi don 'yancin kai na Cabinda, wanda Portuguese ta shiga cikin gudanarwa a matsayin abin ƙyama zuwa Angola.

Yaki a Luanda (wanda ake kira "Yakin 'Yanci na Biyu" na MPLA) ya sake komawa ba da dadewa ba kwana guda bayan da gwamnatin rikon kwarya ta karbi mulki, lokacin da Agostinho Neto ya yi amfani da yarjejeniyar tsagaita bude wuta don kaddamar da wanke magoya bayan abokin hamayyarsa Daniel Chipenda a cikin MPLA. An lalata ƙungiyar Chipenda da yawa, wanda ya bar FLNA a matsayin kawai abin da ya rage ga ikon MPLA na birnin. Chipenda da sojojinsa 2,000 da suka tsira sun sauya sheka zuwa FLNA a cikin watan Fabrairu, wanda ya kara dagula al'amura. [3] Sojojin FNLA, da aka taso daga Zaire, sun kasance suna rike da mukamai a Luanda tun watan Oktoban 1974. MPLA ta biyo baya a ƙananan lambobi. Har zuwa wannan batu, MPLA da UNITA "sun ba da kowace alamar niyya don girmama yarjejeniyar Alvor". Sai dai fada ya barke a Luanda tsakanin FNLA da MPLA. FNLA ta sami goyon bayan Mobutu, Amurka, da China. Ya zuwa watan Maris, FNLA daga arewacin Angola suna tuka mota a Luanda tare da rundunonin sojojin Zairiya waɗanda Amurka ta ƙarfafa Mobutu ya samar.

A ranar 28 ga Afrilun 1975, FNLA ta sake kai hare-hare karo na biyu, kuma a farkon watan Mayu, sojojin Zairiya 200 suka tsallaka zuwa arewacin Angola don tallafa musu. [4] Neto ya bukaci Soviets su kara yawan taimakon soja ga MPLA. A cikin Maris na 1975, matukan jirgin Soviet sun yi jigilar jirage 30 na makamai zuwa Brazzaville, inda aka kai su Luanda. Tarayyar Soviet ta tura makaman da darajarsu ta kai dala miliyan 30 ga MPLA cikin watanni uku, yayin da Cuba ta tura dakaru 230 masu ba da shawara da kwararrun sojoji zuwa MPLA, tare da masu ba da shawara na farko suka isa a watan Mayu.

Yakin ya tsananta da fadace-fadacen tituna a watan Afrilu da Mayu, kuma UNITA ta shiga hannu bayan da wata tawagar MPLA ta kashe fiye da ɗari biyu na mambobinta a watan Yuni 1975. MPLA mai rauni da farko ya koma kudu, amma tare da kayayyaki daga karshe ya iso daga Tarayyar Soviet sannan ya yi nasarar fatattakar FNLA daga Luanda a ranar 9 ga Yulin 1975, kuma UNITA da son rai ta janye zuwa sansaninta na kudu. FNLA ta dauki matsayi a gabas da Quifangondo a wajen gabashin babban birnin kasar, inda ta ci gaba da matsin lamba tare da kawar da duk sauran kasancewar MPLA a lardunan Uíge da Zaire na arewacin kasar.

A watan Agusta, MPLA ta mallaki 11 daga cikin manyan larduna 15, ciki har da Cabinda da Luanda. Yaƙin ya bazu ko'ina cikin ƙasar. Ƙungiyoyin 'yancin kai sun yi ƙoƙarin kwace muhimman wurare masu mahimmanci, mafi mahimmanci babban birnin kasar a ranar 'yancin kai.

Shiga kasashen waje

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Tun daga farkon shekarun 1960, manyan ƙungiyoyin ƴancin kai guda uku sun sami tallafi daga ƙasashe da dama, wani lokaci ma daga irinsu. A lokacin samun 'yancin kai, FNLA da UNITA sun sami taimako daga Amurka, Zaire, Afirka ta Kudu, da Sin.

Muddin Portugal ta kasance a Angola, ƙungiyoyin dole ne su kasance da hedkwatarsu a cikin ƙasashe maƙwabta masu zaman kansu, suna mai da Kongo-Léopoldville ( Jamhuriyar Demokaradiyyar Kongo, tsohuwar Belgian), ga MPLA da FNLA zaɓi na ma'ana. Bayan korar ta daga Kinshasa a watan Nuwamban 1963, MPLA ta ratsa kogin Kongo zuwa tsohuwar kasar Faransa Congo-Brazzaville a Jamhuriyar Kongo inda sabuwar gwamnatinta ta hagu ta gayyace ta. FNLA ta zauna a Kongo-Léopoldville wanda ke da alaƙa da juna kuma daga inda ta sami yawancin tallafin ta. Shugaban FNLA Holden Roberto ya kasance yana da alaƙa da Mobutu ta aure kuma an wajabta masa shi don yawancin abubuwan da suka gabata. A cikin shekaru da yawa, FNLA ta zama ƙasa kaɗan fiye da tsawaita sojojin Mobutu na kansa. Yawancin goyon bayan Zaire sun fito ne a kaikaice daga Amurka, wanda shugaban Zaire Mobutu ke da alaka ta kud da kud da su. Zaire ita ce kasa ta farko da ta tura dakaru zuwa Angola a watan Maris na shekarar 1975 kuma ta shiga yaki da MPLA a lokacin bazara na wannan shekarar.

A lokacin rani na 1974, kasar Sin ta fara aiki bayan juyin juya halin Portuguese, kuma ta tura malaman soja 200 zuwa Zaire inda suka horar da dakarun FNLA da kuma ba da taimakon soja. Shigar Sinawa wani ma'auni ne na adawa da tasirin Soviet maimakon na kasashen yamma. A ranar 27 ga Oktoba 1975, su ma su ne suka fara janye malamansu na soja. UNITA, wacce ta rabu da FNLA a 1965/66 ta kasance Maoist da farko kuma ta sami wasu tallafi daga China. [1] Kasar Sin ta kasance tana horar da kungiyar Mobutu ta Kamanyola, ta kuma horar da FNLA, amma ta janye goyon bayanta ga Zaire da FNLA a karshen watan Disamba na shekarar 1975. [2] A shekarar 1975 kuma kasar Sin ita ce ta farko da ta fice daga yankin bayan juyin juya halin Portugal. Lokacin da goyon bayansu ya daina FNLA da UNITA sun kafu a sansanin yamma.

{asar Amirka na da tarihin tallafa wa gwamnatin Salazar a Portugal. Sun ba da damar amfani da kayan aikin NATO a Angola a lokacin yakin 'yancin kai. Gwamnatin Kennedy ta karbe tallafin Amurka ga FNLA a cikin 1960. Holden Roberto ya kasance a kan Hukumar Leken Asiri ta Tsakiya ko CIA tun daga 1963. A ranar 7 ga Yuli 1974, CIA ta fara ba da tallafin FNLA akan ƙaramin sikeli. A ranar 22 ga Janairun 1975, mako guda bayan an rattaba hannu kan yarjejeniyar Alvor, kuma gabanin gwamnatin wucin gadi ta Angola za ta fara aiki, kwamitin 40 na Majalisar Tsaron Amurka, wanda ke kula da ayyukan CIA na boye, ya ba da izinin taimakon dalar Amurka 300,000 a boye ga FNLA.

Kamar yadda CIA ke zargin MPLA mai ra'ayin hagu, "ba ta da burin ganin gwamnatin Amurka ta yi hulda da MPLA" kuma ba ta son su kasance cikin gwamnatin rikon kwarya. Amurka ta ƙara tallafinta ga FNLA kuma a karon farko ta ɗauki tallafin UNITA. A ranar 18 ga Yuli, 1975, shugaban Amurka Ford ya amince da aikin CIA na sirri " IAFEATURE " don taimakawa FNLA da UNITA da kudi (US $ 30 miliyan), makamai da malamai. A farkon watan Agusta ne malaman sojan Amurka (CIA) suka isa kudancin Angola, inda suka yi hadin gwiwa da takwarorinsu na Afirka ta Kudu da suka isa a lokaci guda. Tallafin ya ƙunshi ɗaukar ma'aikatan haya da faɗaɗa farfagandar yaƙi da MPLA. Marubuci Wayne Smith ya bayyana cewa, Amurka "ta fito fili ta jajirce wajen kakaba takunkumin hana kai makamai ga bangarorin Angola yayin da take kaddamar da wani shiri a asirce".

Afirka ta Kudu, wacce a lokacin tana karkashin mulkin 'yan tsirarun fararen fata da aka fi sani da Apartheid, nan da nan ta zama kawayen UNITA da FNLA. Sauran kasashen yamma da ke da nasu goyon bayan na sirri ga FNLA da UNITA sune Burtaniya da Faransa. Isra'ila ta goyi bayan FNLA daga 1963 zuwa 1969 kuma FNLA ta tura mambobinta zuwa Isra'ila don horarwa. A cikin shekarun 1970s Isra'ila ta aika da makamai zuwa FNLA ta Zaire. [5]

Wasu kasashen Gabas ta Tsakiya da Yugoslavia sun fara kulla alaka da MPLA a farkon shekarun 1960 a lokacin gwagwarmaya da Portuguese. Tarayyar Soviet ta fara taimakon soji mai sauƙi a ƙarshen 1960s. Wannan tallafin ya kasance a ɓoye, ya zo cikin ruɗani kuma wani lokacin ya daina gaba ɗaya. Hakan ya kasance a cikin 1972, lokacin da MPLA ta fuskanci matsin lamba daga Portuguese kuma ta wargaje ta hanyar rikici na cikin gida (gwagwarmayar tsakanin shugaban MPLA António Agostinho Neto da Chipenda daga 1972 zuwa 1974). An dakatar da taimakon Soviet a cikin 1973, ban da wasu ƙayyadaddun jigilar kayayyaki a 1974 don hana tallafin da Sin ke baiwa FNLA; Yugoslavia ce kawai ta ci gaba da aika kayayyaki ga MPLA. Dangane da goyon bayan da Amurka da Sin ke baiwa FNLA, goyon bayan Soviet ga MPLA ya karu sosai a watan Maris na shekarar 1975 ta hanyar isar da makamai ta jiragen sama ta Brazzaville da ta teku ta Dar es Salaam . [6] Taimakon Soviet ga MPLA ya kasance yana ɗan jinkiri; Ba su taɓa amincewa da Neto gabaɗaya ba kuma dangantakarsu ta kasance cikin rashin tabbas cikin shekaru masu zuwa. Soviets sun gwammace mafita ta siyasa, amma ba sa son ganin an ware MPLA. [7] Ko da bayan hare-haren na Afirka ta Kudu Soviets kawai sun aika da makamai, amma babu masu koyarwa don amfani da makamai masu mahimmanci. Daga cikin sauran ƙasashen Gabashin Ƙungiyoyin MPLA suna da kyakkyawar alaƙa da Jamus ta Gabas da Romania, tsohon jigilar kayayyaki da yawa ba na soja ba. Ko da yake kasancewa ɗan hagu, Neto yana sha'awar daidaiton akida a cikin goyon bayansa na ƙasashen waje, amma duk da "overtures" sosai a cikin 1975, ya kasa samun goyon baya ga MPLA daga Amurka, don haka ya dogara kawai ga sansanin gabas.

Kubawa da MPLA kafin Yakin Basasar Angola

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Tuntubar farko da bai da tsari tsakanin Kubawa da MPLA ya faro tun a karshen shekarun 1950.[8] Mayakan guerilla na MPLA sun samu horo na farko daga Kubawa a birnin Algiers tun daga shekarar 1963, kuma Che Guevara ya gana da shugaban MPLA Agostinho Neto don tattaunawa ta matakin koli a karon farko ranar 5 ga Janairu 1965 a Brazzaville, inda Kuba ke kafa rundunar soja na shekaru biyu. Wannan runduna na da babban burin zama ajiya na dabarun soji don aikin Kubawa a gabashin Kongo. Haka kuma za ta bayar da taimako ga gwamnatin Alphonse Massemba-Débat a Brazzaville, kuma da bukatar Neto, ga MPLA a yaki da suke da Portugal a Cabinda da arewacin Angola inda FNLA ke zama babban abokin gaba. Wannan hadin gwiwar ne ya fara dangantakar da ta dore shekaru 26 tsakanin Kuba da MPLA.[9]

Ayyukan MPLA da Kubawa a Cabinda da arewacin Angola ba su samu gagarumar nasara ba, kuma Kubawa sun kawo karshen aikin a Brazzaville kamar yadda aka tsara a watan Yuli 1966. MPLA ta koma da hedikwatarta zuwa Lusaka a farkon 1968. Wasu daga cikin mayakan MPLA sun ci gaba da samun horo a Kuba, amma sauran dangantaka tsakanin Kuba da MPLA ta yi sanyi yayin da Havana ta maida hankali kan yaki da neman ’yancin kai a Guinea-Bissau.[10][11] Bayan ziyarar Castro a kasashen Afirka a watan Mayu 1972, Kuba ta kara zage dantse a ayyukan kasa-da-kasa a Afirka ta hanyar kafa rundunar horarwa a Sierra Leone da kananan ayyuka na fasaha a Equatorial Guinea, Somalia, Algeria da Tanzania.

A cikin wata wasika ta 22 ga Nuwamba 1972, babban jami’in soja na Kuba Manuel Piñeiro Losada ya isar da bukatar MPLA zuwa Raúl Castro kan karamin horo da jami’ai.[12] Wadannan bukatun na 1972 ba su haifar da wata sakamako ba, kuma Kuba ta ci gaba da mayar da hankali a Guinea-Bissau. Sai bayan juyin mulki a Portugal ne wata tawaga daga MPLA ta kawo bukatar taimakon tattalin arziki, horon soja da makamai zuwa Kuba a ranar 26 ga Yuli 1974. A farkon Oktoba, Kuba ta karbi wata sabuwar bukata da ta fi gaggawa don tura jami’an soja guda biyar domin taimakawa wajen tsara rundunar sojin MPLA wato FAPLA. A cikin Disamba 1974 da Janairu 1975, Kuba ta tura Major Alfonso Perez Morales da Carlos Cadelo zuwa Angola don nazarin halin da ake ciki.[13] A wata wasika ta 26 ga Janairu 1975 da aka mika wa Cadelo da Morales, Neto ya jero abubuwan da MPLA ke bukata daga Kuba, ciki har da: “Kafa, tsara da kula da makarantar soji don shugabanni”, “Jirgin ruwa na [Kuba] don daukar kayan yaki da muke da su a Dar-es-Salaam zuwa Angola”, “Kaya da kayan soji ga mutane 10,000”, da “Taimakon kudi yayin da muke kafa da tsara kanmu.”[14]

Ko da yake Kuba na tunanin kafa rundunar soja a Angola don horo, ba a mayar da martani na hukuma ba a wancan lokacin. Sai dai MPLA ta sake maimaita bukatar a watan Mayu 1975 lokacin da kwamandan Kuba Flavio Bravo ya gana da Neto a Brazzaville, yayin da Portugal ke shirin janye mulkinta daga kasashen Afirka.[15] MPLA ta fara neman taimako daga kasashen gabashin Turai (Eastern Bloc), amma bai yi wa su kwazo ba kamar yadda suka so. Wani rahoto daga Kuba ya ce Neto ya nuna rashin jin dadi kan yadda Moscow ke watsi da su. Ya bayyana fatan cewa yakin Angola zai zama "muhimmin lamari a yaki da mulkin mallaka da kuma tallafa wa tsarin gurguzu". Amma ko Rasha ko MPLA ba su zaci wani yaki mai tsanani zai barke kafin samun 'yancin kai ba.[16] A watan Maris 1975, MPLA ta tura mutane 100 daga cikin ’ya’yanta zuwa Tarayyar Soviet don horo, sannan ta nemi taimakon kudi daga Yugoslavia, wadda ta bayar da dala 100,000.

Shiga cikin lamarin da Afirka ta Kudu ta yi

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Janyewar kwatsam da Portugal ta yi daga Angola da Mozambique a shekarar 1975 ta kawo ƙarshen haɗin gwiwar soja da na leƙen asiri tsakanin Afirka ta Kudu da Portugal tun daga shekarun 1960, wanda daga baya aka maida shi wata ƙungiya ta sirri mai suna Alcora Exercise.[17] Wannan ya kuma kawo ƙarshen haɗin gwiwar tattalin arziki da suka yi game da aikin samar da wutar lantarki a kan iyakar Angola da Namibia, wanda Afirka ta Kudu ta ɗauki nauyin kuɗin sa.[18][19]

Shiga da Afirka ta Kudu ta yi cikin rikicin Angola, wanda ta ɗauka a matsayin Yaƙin Iyakarta, ya fara ne a 1966 lokacin da rikici da ƙungiyar ’yantar da Namibia wato South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO), wadda a lokacin tana da sansanoni a Ovamboland da Zambia, ya ɓarke. Da Portugal ta fita daga sahu kuma gwamnati mai ra’ayin gurguzu da ke goyon bayan SWAPO ta kafa mulki a sabbin ƙasashen da suka samu ’yanci, gwamnatin wariyar launin fata ta rasa wani muhimmin bangare na kariya tsakanin ta da ƙasashen Afirka baki masu adawa da ita.[20][21][22]

A cikin shekarun da suka biyo baya, Afirka ta Kudu ta tsunduma cikin ayyukan soja da tattalin arziki a yankin, ta ba da goyon baya ga RENAMO a yaƙin basasar Mozambique, ta yi yunkurin dagula tattalin arziki a ƙasashe kamar su Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, da Zimbabwe, ta mara baya ga yunƙurin juyin mulki da bai yi nasara ba a Seychelles a 1981, da kuma juyin mulki a Lesotho a 1986. Ta kuma goyi bayan yunƙurin juyin mulki a Tanzania a 1983, ta tallafa wa ‘yan tawaye a Zimbabwe tun bayan samun ‘yanci, ta kai hari ofisoshin African National Congress a Maputo, Harare, da Gaborone, sannan ta gudanar da yaƙin hana fitina a Namibia da SWAPO ke jagoranta.[23] SWAPO ta koma sansanoni a Angola, kuma hakan ya sanya Afirka ta Kudu ta fuskanci buƙatar ketare wata ƙasa domin bin SWAPO, tare da fuskantar wata sabuwar gwamnati mai ra’ayin hagu a yankin. Saboda rashin wata fa’ida ta tattalin arziki a Angola, Afirka ta Kudu ta ga tilas ne ta yi amfani da ƙarfin soja kawai domin tasiri kan abubuwan da ke faruwa.[23]

A ranar 14 ga Yuli 1975, Firaministan Afirka ta Kudu John Vorster ya amince da siyan makamai na sirri na dala miliyan 14 domin FNLA da UNITA.[24][25] Jirgin farko da ke ɗauke da makamai daga Afirka ta Kudu zuwa FNLA da UNITA ya isa a watan Agusta 1975.

A ranar 9 ga Agusta 1975, wani rundunar sojoji 30 daga South African Defence Force (SADF) ta shiga kimanin kilomita 50 cikin Angola ta kudu inda suka mamaye tashar samar da lantarki ta Ruacana-Calueque da sauran wurare a kogin Cunene. An yi amfani da wasu hare-hare da suka faru da UNITA da SWAPO a matsayin hujja da ta firgita ma’aikatan ƙasashen waje.[26] Kare dam ɗin Calueque da ke kudancin Angola ne ya zama uzurin farko da Afirka ta Kudu ta fara ajiye sojojinta na dindindin a Angola.[27][28]

A ranar 22 ga Agusta 1975, SADF ta ƙaddamar da aikin soja mai suna "Sausage II", wani babban farmaki kan SWAPO a kudancin Angola. Bugu da ƙari, a ranar 4 ga Satumba 1975, Vorster ya ba da izinin samar da horo, shawarwari, da tallafin kayayyakin soji ga FNLA da UNITA. A madadin haka, FNLA da UNITA za su taimaka wa Afirka ta Kudu wajen yaƙi da SWAPO.[29]

Sakamakon nasarorin da MPLA ke samu, yankin UNITA ya takaita zuwa tsakiyar Angola kawai,[30] kuma ya bayyana wa Afirka ta Kudu cewa ranar samun ’yancin Angola za ta zo ne da MPLA ke rike da Luanda; "ba Amurka ko Afirka ta Kudu suka shirya yarda da hakan ba."[31] SADF ta kafa sansanin horo kusa da Silva Porto da kuma shirya tsaron Nova Lisboa (Huambo). Suka kafa rundunar harin tafe mai suna "Foxbat" don dakatar da sojojin FAPLA da suka ci karo da su a ranar 5 Oktoba 1975, kuma hakan ya ceci Nova Lisboa ga UNITA.[32]

A ranar 14 Oktoba 1975, Afirka ta Kudu ta ƙaddamar da Operation Savannah a sirrance lokacin da Task Force Zulu, rundunar farko daga cikin wasu da dama, ta shiga Angola daga Namibia. Kudancin Angola na cikin rudani yayin da ƙungiyoyin ‘yanci uku ke fama da juna. Ya ɗauki lokaci kafin FAPLA ta fahimci abokan gaba na gaskiya kuma SADF ta ci gaba da shiga cikin sauri. Task Force Foxbat ta shiga wannan aikin a tsakiyar Oktoba.[33][34] Manufar aikin ita ce kawar da MPLA daga yankin kudu, daga nan zuwa kudu maso yamma na Angola, daga tsakiyar ƙasa, sannan daga karshe zuwa kama Luanda.[35]

A cewar Edward George, gwamnatin Afirka ta Kudu "ta yi imani cewa da ta mamaye Angola za ta iya kafa wakilanta a matsayin shugabanni sannan ta tsare tsarin wariyar launin fata na dogon lokaci".[29] Amurka ta riga ta sani game da shirye-shiryen sojan Afirka ta Kudu tun kafin farawa. Sun ƙarfafa su, suna haɗin gwiwa da su, sabanin abin da Sakataren Harkokin Waje Henry Kissinger ya faɗa wa Majalisa a lokacin, da kuma abin da Shugaba Ford ya faɗa wa Sinawa, waɗanda ke goyon bayan FNLA amma suna damuwa da shiga Afirka ta Kudu cikin lamarin Angola.[36][37] A cewar John Stockwell, tsohon jami’in CIA, "akwai kyakkyawar haɗin gwiwa tsakanin CIA da Afirka ta Kudu"[31] kuma "'manyan jami'ai' a Pretoria sun ce shiga da suka yi cikin Angola ya samo asali ne daga wata 'yar fahimta da suka yi da Amurka".[38]

Aikin Soja na Cuba

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A ranar 3 ga Agusta, wata tawagar daga Cuba ta sake zuwa Angola karo na biyu don tantance halin da ake ciki, da tsara shirin horaswa kamar yadda Neto ya nema, da kuma mikawa Angola dala $100,000. [39] Neto ya koka da "karancin taimako daga kasashen gurguzu kuma "da cewa Tarayyar Soviet ta dakatar da taimako ga MPLA a 1972, kodayake sun ce yanzu suna ba da makamai, amma ƙalilan ne idan aka kwatanta da bukatunsu masu yawa". Argüelles ya amince da Neto yayin da ya ga bangarorin da ke cikin rikicin Angola "a bayyane suke, FNLA da UNITA na wakiltar karfin mulkin mallaka na duniya da mayar da martani daga Portugal, yayin da MPLA ke wakiltar masu neman cigaba da 'yan kasa." [40] [41]

Bayan dawowar tawagar a ranar 8 ga Agusta, 'yan Cuba sun fara la'akari da hanyoyin da masu horaswa zasu bi idan har South Africa ko Zaire suka tsoma baki — ko dai "yaƙin gwagwarmaya" ko kuma komawa Zambia, inda Cuba ta buɗe ofishin jakadanci. [42] A cikin wata takarda ta 11 ga Agusta 1975, Manjo Raúl Diaz Argüelles ya rubuta wa Manjo Raúl Castro, yana bayyana dalilan ziyarar da abubuwan da aka tattauna. Ya jaddada cewa hare-haren da FNLA da Mobutu suka kai wa MPLA da kuma yiyuwar abubuwan da za su biyo baya kafin samun 'yancin kai a watan Nuwamba sun sa suka fahimci cewa "masu adawa da masu mulkin mallaka za su yi iya ƙoƙarinsu don hana MPLA ɗaukar mulki." A wannan rana Argüelles ya ba da shawarar aika mutum 94 zuwa wurin Castro. [43] A ranar 15 ga Agusta, Castro ya roki Tarayyar Soviet da ta ƙara goyon bayan ta ga MPLA, ya kuma bayar da shawarar a aika da sojojin musamman. Rasha ta ƙi amincewa. [44]

Sakamakon tsoma bakin Zaire daga arewa da kuma mamayar South Africa na rukunin wutar lantarki na Ruacana-Calueque daga kudu, an yanke shawarar a mayar da CIRs da sojojin Cuba kusan 500 maimakon mutum 100 da aka nema tun farko, domin su horar da sojoji 4,800 na FAPLA zuwa rundunonin sojojin ƙasa guda 16, dakunan harba mortar guda 25 da kuma wasu rukunin harba jirgin sama cikin watanni uku zuwa shida. Wadannan 500 sun hada da 17 daga sashen lafiya da hafsoshi 284. [28] [43] [45] "Shawarar faɗaɗa aikin ya samo asali ne daga tunanin cewa ... dole a samu isassun mutane don cika aikin da kuma kare kansu idan komai ya baci. Duk da haka, a fili ne ... suna sa ran aikin zai ɗauki kusan watanni 6 kacal." [46]

Aika da sojojin sa-kai na Cuba ya fara ne a ranar 21 ga Agusta. Tawagar farko mai ƙwararru ta fara zuwa ta jiragen kasuwanci. Kungiyoyi ƙanana suka ci gaba da isa Luanda ta irin waɗannan jirage da kuma jiragen tsofaffin Britannia na Cuba, yayin da mafi yawansu suka iso bayan tafiyar makonni biyu a cikin jiragen daukar kaya na Cuba; na farko, "Vietnam Heroico" ya sauka a Porto Amboim a ranar 5 ga Oktoba. [39] Hawan jiragen ruwa biyu na Cuba zuwa Angola da masu horaswa a cikinsu ya samu rahoto daga CIA [47] kuma bai tayar da jijiyoyin wuya a Washington ba. [48]

An sanya CIRs a Cabinda, Benguela, Saurimo (da aka fi sani da Henrique de Carvalho) da kuma a N'Dalatando (tsohon Salazar). CIR da ke Cabinda ya kunshi kusan rabin yawan duka — mutum 191 — yayin da sauran wurare suka samu mutum 66 ko 67 kowanne. Wasu daga cikin su an aike su zuwa hedikwata a Luanda ko kuma wasu sassa na ƙasar. Dalilin kafa manyan runduna a Cabinda shine saboda barazanar da ake ganin na iya fitowa daga Zaire — ko dai ga Cabinda ko Congo. [39] [49] A lokacin da cibiyoyin horaswa suka cika da ma’aikata kuma suka fara aiki tsakanin 18 zuwa 20 ga Oktoba, duniya ba ta ankara ba, Operation Savannah ta riga ta fara da ƙarfi. [50]

Saboda nasarorin da MPLA ke samu a kudu — inda ta karbe iko da jihohi 12 da kuma mafi yawan birane — a bangaren arewa, da kyar suka iya tsayawa da FNLA da abokan hulɗarta, wadanda ke da kayan yaki masu ƙarfi. [51] FNLA na samun makamai daga Amurka ta hannun Zaire tun ƙarshen Yuli [52] kuma ta ƙara ƙarfinta a watan Satumba da zuwan dakarun Zaire na Commando na hudu da na bakwai. [28] Daga Yuli zuwa Nuwamba, gaba ya ci gaba da matsawa baya da gaba tsakanin Caxito da Quifangondo (Kifangondo). Neto ya nemi karin taimako daga Tarayyar Soviet, amma ba su da niyyar aika ma’aikata kafin samun ‘yancin kai, sai dai da ƙyar suka ƙara aikawa da makamai. Cubans na ta fama da shigowar sabbin ma'aikata don CIRs, kuma sai ranar 19 ga Oktoba ne suka fahimci matsayin Luanda da gaske. Sun rufe CIR na Salazar kwana uku bayan bude shi, sannan suka tura yawancin masu horaswa da sabbin sojoji zuwa Luanda. [53] Masu horaswa 40 daga CIR Salazar sune Cubans na farko da suka shiga cikin kare Quifangondo a ranar 23 Oktoba 1975, lokacin da suka kai harin da bai yi nasara ba akan dakarun FNLA-Zaire a Morro do Cal. Wani ƙungiya ta biyu ta goyi bayan MPLA a ranar 28 Oktoba a layin kariya na Kifangondo. [54]

Amma Cubans ba su lura ba cewa yankunan da MPLA ta samu a kudu sun sake faɗa hannun South Africa cikin gaggawa. Bayan Shawarwari daga South Africa da makaman harbo tankuna sun taimaka wajen dakile harin MPLA a Nova Lisboa (Huambo) tun farkon Oktoba, Zulu ta karbe Roçadas a ranar 20 Oktoba, Sá da Bandeira a ranar 24 Oktoba, da Moçâmedes a ranar 28 Oktoba. A ranakun 2 zuwa 3 ga Nuwamba, masu horaswa na Cuba suka shiga artabu karo na uku, wannan karon mutum 51 daga CIR Benguela, lokacin da suka kasa taimakawa FAPLA dakile ci gaban Zulu a kusa da Catengue. Wannan shine karo na farko da aka tabbatar da asarar rayuka daga Cuba. "Halartar su ya sa kwamandan Zulu, Breytenbach, ya ce sojojinsa 'sun fuskanci mafi ƙwarewa da kuma mafi nauyin adawa daga FAPLA da suka taɓa gani." [55]

Katsalandu na Farko na Cuba

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Operation Carlota

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Sai bayan rugujewar MPLA a Catengue ne Kuban suka fahimci sosai game da kutsen Afirka ta Kudu, cewa za a ci Luanda kuma ayyukan horon su suna cikin babban haɗari sai sun ɗauki mataki nan da nan. Neto ya nemi ƙarin ƙarfi nan da nan kuma mai yawa daga Havana bisa ga roƙon Argüelles. A ranar 4 ga Nuwamba, Castro ya yanke shawarar ƙaddamar da shiga tsakani a kan matakin da ba a taɓa gani ba, inda ya ba da suna ga manufa Operation Carlota, bayan 'Black Carlota', shugabar tawayen bayi a 1843. A wannan rana, jirgin sama na farko mai ɗauke da ƙwararrun makamai masu nauyi 100, waɗanda MPLA ta nema a watan Satumba, ya tashi zuwa Brazzaville, inda ya isa Luanda a ranar 7 ga Nuwamba. A ranar 9 ga Nuwamba jiragen sama biyu na farko na Cuba sun isa Luanda tare da maza 100 na farko na rukunin bataliyar ƙwararrun Sojoji na Musamman 652.[56] Babban abin da Kuban suka sa gaba shi ne taimaka wa MPLA ta ci gaba da riƙe Luanda. Fidel Castro ya bayyana sa hannun Cuba: "Lokacin da sojojin Afirka ta Kudu suka fara mamaye Angola a ranar 23 ga Oktoba, ba za mu iya zama a banza ba. Kuma lokacin da MPLA ta nemi taimakonmu, mun ba da taimakon da ya dace don hana Apartheid zama cikin walwala a Angola".[57][44]

Wani Bristol Britannia, hoton da aka ɗauka a 1964.

Tare da Operation Carlota, Cuba ta zama babban ɗan wasa a rikicin. Ba kamar yadda ta shiga harkokin waje a shekarun sittin ba, wannan ba wata boyayyar aiki ba ce. Castro ya yanke shawarar tallafawa MPLA a fili, yana aika dakarun musamman da sojojin ƙasa 35,000 zuwa ƙarshen 1976, yana tura su da kuɗin Cuba da hanyoyinsu daga Nuwamba 1975 zuwa Janairu 1976. Kamar yadda a ayyukanta na baya, duk ma'aikatan sun kasance masu sa kai kuma kiran ya shahara sosai.

Jirgin sama don saurin tura sojoji ya zama babban matsala. Cuba tana da jiragen sama guda uku na Bristol Britannia masu tsufa waɗanda ba su dace da tafiye-tafiye na kilomita 9,000 ba tare da tsayawa ba. Duk da haka, tsakanin 7 ga Nuwamba zuwa 9 ga Disamba, Kuban sun gudanar da jiragen sama 70 na ƙarfafawa zuwa Luanda. Da farko sun iya tsayawa a Barbados, Azores, ko Newfoundland, wanda ya sa Washington ta matsa lamba don hana Cuba damar sauka. Amma motsa tashin jirgi zuwa filin jirgin sama mafi gabas na Cuba, Holguin, ɗaukar ƙaramin nauyi gwargwadon yuwuwa, da ƙara tankunan mai, an yi amfani da jiragen don tafiye-tafiye masu yawa a faɗin teku har sai da Soviets suka shigo da jiragen sama masu nisa.[57][58]

Don yawancin sojojin da kayan aiki, Kuban sun mallake duk jiragen ruwa da ke akwai a cikin jirgin ruwan kasuwancinsu, uku na farko sun tashi daga Havana a ranar 8 ga Nuwamba. Sun yi tashar jirgin ruwa a Luanda a ranar 27 da 29 ga Nuwamba da 1 ga Disamba suna kawo sojoji 1,253 da kayan aiki.[59]

Tura sojoji ba a shirya shi ba tare da USSR ba, kamar yadda aka ruwaito kuma aka nuna shi akai-akai ta gwamnatin Amurka. Akasin haka, ya kuma ba USSR mamaki.[60] An tilasta wa Soviets su yarda da tura sojojin Cuba don kada su yi barazana ga dangantaka da muhimmin abokinsu kusa da Amurka. Amma sun yi tunanin kiyaye iyakokin sa hannun Cuba kuma sun aika da makamai da ƴan ƙwararru zuwa Brazzaville da Dar es Salaam. Bayan watanni biyu ne kawai bayan yaƙin ya koma gefen Kuban kuma Amurka ta zartar da Clark Amendment cewa Moscow ta yarda da wani matakin tallafi ta hanyar shirya har zuwa jiragen sama 10 daga Cuba zuwa Angola.[61]

Tare da FNLA suna kai hari daga gabas, halin da ake ciki ga MPLA ƴan kwanaki kaɗan kafin samun ƴancin kai ya yi muni. Bugu da ƙari, Cabinda tana cikin barazanar mamayewa ta ƙarfin FLEC-Zairian.[17] Sojojin Cuba da suka iya shiga tsakani kafin bayyana ƴancin kai a ranar 11 ga Nuwamba sune waɗanda aka tura a cikin CIRs guda uku, ƙwararrun 100 waɗanda suka isa Luanda a ranar 7 ga Nuwamba da ƙwararrun sojoji na musamman na Operation Carlota 164 na farko waɗanda suka isa jiragen sama biyu a maraicen 8 ga Nuwamba.[62] An aika da ƙwararrun 100 da maza 88 na ƙwararrun sojoji nan da nan zuwa gabanin Quifangondo inda ƙarfin FNLA-Zairian ya ƙaddamar da hari a wannan safiyar. Sun tallafa wa FAPLA 850, Katangans 200 da mai ba da shawara ɗaya na Soviet. An riga an kawo makamai masu nauyi na farko daga Cuba ta jirgin ruwa a ranar 7 ga Nuwamba, cikinsu akwai bindigogi, manyan bindigogi da 6 BM-21 (Katyusha) manyan makamai masu linzami. Kuban sun sami rahotanni cewa mamayewar Cabinda da ake tsammani ya fara a safiyar 8 ga Nuwamba.

Gaba ta Arewa da Cabinda

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mamayewar Cabinda an gudanar da shi ta bataliyoyin sojojin ƙasa guda uku na FLEC da ɗaya na Zairian a ƙarƙashin umarnin haya na Faransa da Amurka 150. MPLA tana da Kuban 232 na CIR, bataliyar sojojin ƙasa ta FAPLA da aka horar da ita da wadda ba a horar da ita ba. A cikin yaƙin da ya biyo baya don Cabinda daga 8–13 ga Nuwamba, sun yi nasarar fatattakar mamayewar ba tare da tallafi daga Operation Carlota ba, don haka suka ceci yankin da ke gefe don MPLA.[63]

Kwanaki biyu kafin samun ƴancin kai, babban haɗari ga MPLA ya fito daga gabanin arewa inda FNLA da abokanta suka tsaya gabas da Quifangondo. Dakarun FNLA 2,000 sun sami tallafi daga bataliyoyin sojojin ƙasa na Zairian guda biyu (maza 1,200), haya na Fotigal 120, ƴan masu ba da shawara, cikinsu akwai ƙaramin rukunin CIA, da Afirka ta Kudu 52 waɗanda Janar Ben de Wet Roos ke jagoranta. Suna kula da manyan bindigogi da SADF ta bayar waɗanda aka kawo ta jirgin sama zuwa Ambriz kwana biyu kafin hakan.[64]

Bayan harin manyan bindigogi a Luanda da Quifangondo cikin dare da kuma harin bam ta jirgin saman Afirka ta Kudu a farkon sa'o'i, an ƙaddamar da harin ƙarshe na FNLA a safiyar 10 ga Nuwamba. An yi wa ƙarfin da ke kai hari kwanton bauna kuma sojojin FAPLA-Cuban sun lalata shi. Sojojin Cuba sun kuma rufe abokan gaba na Afirka ta Kudu da FNLA da BM-21 Grad manyan makamai masu linzami waɗanda aka sanya a wuri a daren da ya gabata, kuma sun fice daga kewayen manyan bindigogi na Afirka ta Kudu. Rashin nasarar FNLA a Yaƙin Quifangondo ya tabbatar da babban birnin don MPLA. A wannan rana Fotigal sun miƙa mulki "ga jama'ar Angola" kuma bayan ɗan lokaci kaɗan bayan tsakar dare Neto ya bayyana ƴancin kai da kuma kafa "Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Angola".[65][66] CIA da sauran hukumomin sirri na waje sun yi wa FNLA da UNITA kira da su bayyana Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Demokraɗiyya tare da babban birnin wucin gadi a Huambo. Duk da haka, UNITA da FNLA ba su iya yarda a kan haɗin kan gwamnati ba kuma faɗa tsakaninsu ya fara a Huambo a jajibirin ranar ƴancin kai.[67][68][69] A ranar ƴancin kai MPLA tana da ɗan abin da ya wuce babban birnin da kuma wani yanki na tsakiyar Angola zuwa cikin Zaire da kuma yankin da ke gefe na Cabinda. A ranar 4 ga Disamba, FAPLA-Kuban sun ƙaddamar da hari mai maida martani a kan FNLA. Amma da Luanda da Cabinda suka tabbata kuma an ci FNLA a Quifangondo, daga ƙarshe za su iya ba da ƙarin kulawa ga kudu.[70]

Cuba ta yi aiki da kanta ta Disamba da Janairu tana shigo da sojojinta a hankali, amma ci gaba da kai. Bayan watanni biyu bayan fara Operation Carlota, Soviets sun yarda da jiragen haya goma a kan manyan jiragen sama na IL-62, farawa a ranar 8 ga Janairu.[71] Wannan ya biyo baya mako guda bayan yarjejeniya cewa "Soviets za su samar da duk makamai na gaba ... suna jigilar su kai tsaye zuwa Angola don jigilar jirgin sama na Cuba ya iya mai da hankali kan ma'aikata."[70]

Zuwa farkon Fabrairu, tare da ƙaruwar adadin sojojin Cuba da makamai masu ci gaba, halin da ake ciki ya canza a madadin MPLA. Harin ƙarshe a Arewa ya fara a ranar 1 ga Janairu 1976. Zuwa ranar 3 ga Janairu, sojojin FAPLA-Cuban sun mamaye sansanonin jiragen sama na FNLA na Negage da Camabatela kuma kwana ɗaya bayan haka babban birnin FNLA na Carmona. Wani yunƙuri na ƙarshe na FNLA na amfani da haya na waje da CIA ta yi rajista (duba babi na gaba: Martanin Amurka) ya gaza; a ranar 11 ga Janairu, FAPLA-Cuban sun kama Ambriz da Ambrizete (N'zeto) kuma a ranar 15 ga Fabrairu, wurin da FNLA ta riƙe na ƙarshe, São Salvador. Zuwa ƙarshen Fabrairu, bataliyoyin Cuba ɗaya da FAPLA 12 sun lalata FNLA gaba ɗaya, suna korar abin da ya rage daga gare su da kuma sojojin Zairian a fadin iyaka.[72][73] An riga an kwashe rukunin Afirka ta Kudu a gabanin arewa ta jirgin ruwa a ranar 28 ga Nuwamba.[74] Haya na ƙarshe sun bar arewacin Angola a ranar 17 ga Janairu.[75]

Martanin Amurka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kwanaki da yawa kafin Amurka ta fahimci tsananin shan kashi na FNLA a Quifangondo, amma har ma a lokacin ba ta da wata masaniya game da girman sa hannun Cuba. Labarin daga gabanin kudu, a ganinsu, har yanzu yana da kyau.[76] Kissinger, kamar yadda Afirka ta Kudu, ya girgiza da girman martanin Soviet da Cuba. Rundunar aikin Angolan ta CIA a hedkwatar CIA a Langley ta kasance da kwarin gwiwa sosai game da nasarar da sojojin Zairian da Afirka ta Kudu za su samu, cewa a ranar 11 ga Nuwamba, membobin sun yi bikin samun ƴancin kai na Angola tare da giya da cuku a ofisoshinsu.[27] Amurka ba ta yi tsokaci game da sa hannun Afirka ta Kudu a Angola ba amma ta la'anci sa hannun Cuba lokacin da ta fara amincewa da sojojin Cuba a Angola a cikin wata sanarwa a hukumance a ranar 24 ga Nuwamba 1975. Kissinger ya ce "ƙoƙarin Amurka na kusantar Cuba zai ƙare idan 'sa hannun sojojin Cuba a harkokin sauran ƙasashe da ke gwagwarmaya don yanke shawara game da makomarsu' ya ci gaba."[31] A ranar 28 ga Fabrairu 1976, Ford ya kira Castro "ɗan fashin duniya" kuma sa hannun Cuba "aikin cin zarafi ne na bayyane."[77]

Saboda ƙiyayya tsakanin Amurka da Cuba, Amurkawa sun ɗauki irin wannan taimakon daga Kuban a matsayin shan kashi wanda ba za a iya karɓa ba.[78] Amurka ta ɗauka cewa USSR ce ke bayan sa hannun Cuba.[57][79] A ranar 9 ga Disamba, Ford ya nemi Soviets su dakatar da jigilar jirgin sama, har yanzu yana ɗauka cewa aiki ne na Soviet.[80] Amurkawa sun kuma nuna dalilai da lokutan Kuban daban-daban: Sun yi iƙirarin cewa Afirka ta Kudu dole ne ta shiga tsakani bayan Cuba ta aika sojoji don tallafawa MPLA kuma cewa yaƙin a Angola babban sabon ƙalubale ne ga ikon Amurka ta Moscow mai faɗaɗa da ke da sabuwar kwarin gwiwa bayan nasarorin kwaminisanci a Yaƙin Vietnam. Shekaru da yawa bayan haka ne kawai ya zama a gare su a sarari cewa Kuban sun yi aiki da kansu.[81]

Castro ya mayar da martani ga martanin Amurka: "Me ya sa suka damu? Me ya sa suka shirya komai don mallakar Angola kafin 11 ga Nuwamba? Angola ƙasa ce mai arzikin albarkatu. A Cabinda akwai mai mai yawa. Wasu masu mulkin mallaka suna mamaki me ya sa muke taimaka wa Angolan, waɗanne muradu muke da su. Sun saba tunanin cewa ƙasa ɗaya tana taimaka wa wata ƙasa ne kawai idan tana son man ta, tagulla, lu'u-lu'u ko wasu albarkatu. A'a, ba mu neman muradu na kayan abu kuma yana da ma'ana cewa masu mulkin mallaka ba su fahimci wannan ba. Suna san kaɗai ƙa'idodin kishin ƙasa, ƙabilanci da son kai. Ta hanyar taimaka wa jama'ar Angola muna cika muhimmin aiki na Ƙasashen Duniya.[57]

A ranar 3 ga Disamba 1975, a wani taro tare da jami'an Amurka da China ciki har da Deng Xiaoping (Mataimakin Firayim Minista kuma mataimakin Mao Zedong), Qiao Guanhua (Ministan Harkokin Waje), Shugaba Gerald Ford, Henry Kissinger (Sakataren Harkokin Waje/Ministan Harkokin Waje), Brent Scowcroft (Mataimakin Shugaban Kasa na NSA) da George H. W. Bush (Shugaban Ofishin Hulɗa na Amurka a Peking) an tattauna batutuwan ƙasashen duniya, ɗayansu shine Angola. Duk da yake China ta tallafa wa MPLA a baya, yanzu sun goyi bayan FNLA da UNITA. China tana da damuwa musamman game da hankalin Afirka da girman kai kuma ta ɗauki sa hannun Afirka ta Kudu a matsayin matsalar farko kuma mai rikitarwa. Kissinger ya mayar da martani, cewa Amurka a shirye take "ta fitar da Afirka ta Kudu da zaran za a iya samar da wata rundunar soji mai maye gurbi".[82] A wannan taron ne Shugaba Ford ya gaya wa Sinawa: "Ba mu da wata alaƙa da sa hannun Afirka ta Kudu, kuma za mu ɗauki mataki don fitar da Afirka ta Kudu, muddin za a iya kiyaye daidaito don ba su kasance a ciki ba".[82] Ya kuma ce ya amince da ƙarin dala miliyan 35 (don tallafawa arewa) sama da abin da aka yi a baya. Sun tattauna kuma sun yarda wa zai tallafawa FNLA ko UNITA ta wace hanya da kuma yadda za a yi la'akari da hankalin ƙasashe makwabta.[82]

Sai kawai lokacin da gwamnatin Amurka ta nemi Majalisa dala miliyan 28 don IAFEATURE ne Majalisa ta mai da hankali sosai ga abubuwan da suka faru a Angola. A lokacin "shaidar mamayewar Afirka ta Kudu tana da yawa kuma ƙamshin haɗin gwiwar Amurka da Pretoria yana yawo a iska. Mafi muni, ƙaruwar adadin sojojin Cuba sun lalata shirye-shiryen CIA kuma gwamnati ta zama kamar ta rasa abin da za ta yi na gaba."[83] Ba a amince da kuɗin ba kuma a ranar 20 ga Disamba 1975, Majalisar Dattijai ta Amurka ta zartar da gyara da ke hana taimakon sirri ga ƙungiyoyin masu adawa da Kwaminisanci da rage sa hannun CIA a Angola. Daga baya a wannan lokacin sanyi, wani gyara ga dokar taimakon ƙasashen waje wanda Dick Clark ya ɗauki nauyi ya tsawaita haramcin. (Clark Amendment)[84] Gwamnatin Amurka ta koma wasu hanyoyin tallafawa FNLA da UNITA waɗanda ɗayansu shine ɗaukar hayar haya. CIA ta fara wani shiri na sirri don ɗaukar Brazilians da Turawa don yaƙi a arewacin Angola. Gaba ɗaya sun yi nasarar ɗaukar maza kusan 250, amma a lokacin da adadi mai ma'ana ya isa a Janairu 1975, yakin a arewa ya kusan ƙarewa.[85] Sauran hanyoyin ci gaba da tallafawa FNLA da UNITA sun kasance ta hanyar Afirka ta Kudu da sauran ƙasashen da Amurka ke da alaƙa da su kamar Isra'ila da Morocco.[86]

Rahoton Henry Kissinger na Janairu 13, 1976 ya ba da haske game da ayyuka da ƙiyayya a Angola, inter alia:[87]

2. An biyo bayan sabunta rahoton halin da ake ciki dangane da tushen sirri.
A: Diplomacy

  • (1) Wakilan Cuba guda biyu sun kasance a Addis Ababa. A lokacin taron Kungiyar Haɗin Kan Afirka (OAU) da aka kammala, wata tawagar, karkashin Osmany Cienfuegos, jami'in PCC mai kula da Afirka da Gabas ta Tsakiya kuma memba na Kwamitin Tsakiya na PCC, ta ziyarci Congo, Najeriya, Uganda da Aljeriya kafin taron OAU. Wata tawagar Cuba ta jagoranci jakadan Cuba Ricardo Alarcon.
  • (2) A ƙarshen Disamba farkon Janairu tawagar MPLA ta ziyarci Jamaica, Guyana, Venezuela da Panama don neman goyon baya ga lamarin ta. Tawagar har yanzu tana yankin.

B: Soja

  • (1) An kiyasta cewa Cuba na iya samun sojoji har 9,000 a Angola, dangane da adadin jigilar jiragen sama da na teku na Cuba waɗanda suka riga sun wuce Angola. Taimakon soji ga MPLA na iya kashe Cuba dala miliyan 30. Wannan adadi ya haɗa da ƙimar kayan aikin soji da Cuba ta aika zuwa Angola, kuɗin jigilar mutane da kayan aiki, da kuma kuɗin kiyaye sojoji a filin.
  • (2) Sojojin Cuba sun ɗauki nauyin faɗa a harin MPLA a yankin arewa a makon da ya gabata wanda ya haifar da kama Uige (Carmona) ta MPLA. MPLA na iya shirya don kai hari a kudu, wani ɓangare bisa ga roƙon Ƙungiyar Jama'ar Kudu maso Yammacin Afirka (SWAPO).
  • (3) An ruwaito cewa jiragen yaƙi na Soviet takwas, wataƙila MiG-17s, ana haɗa su a Luanda. Waɗannan jiragen yaƙi sun isa daga wata majiya da ba a sani ba a ƙarshen Disamba. Ana sa ran za a aika da MiGs takwas, nau'in da ba a sani ba, zuwa Angola daga Najeriya, matuƙan jirgin sama na Cuba da yawa sun isa a cikin Disamba. Matuƙan jirgin sama suna sarrafa jiragen sama da yawa yanzu da MPLA ke da su ciki har da Fokker Friendship F-27. Kuban za su sarrafa MiGs.
  • (4) Sojojin Cuba suna cikin cikakken iko na Luanda a ranar 9 ga Janairu. Suna gudanar da duk sintiri na tsaro, suna sarrafa wuraren binciken ƴan sanda, kuma da alama nan da nan za su ɗauki iko da filin jirgin sama na Luanda.
  • (5) Cuba na iya fara amfani da jiragen sama masu ɗaukar fasinja 200 IL-62 (Soviet) a ayyukanta na tallafawa jigilar jirgin sama. IL-62 yana da ninki biyu na iya aiki na Bristol Britannias da IL-18 waɗanda Cuba ta yi amfani da su a baya kuma yana da dogon zango kuma. IL-62 ya bar Havana don Luanda Janairu 10. da Janairu 11.

C: Sauran:

  • Duk jiragen kasuwanci na Fotigal da ke sauka a Luanda yanzu suna ɗaukar abinci gwargwadon yuwuwa. Abubuwan abinci da ke samuwa ga yawan jama'a sun zama ƙarami.

"Jami'an leƙen asiri na Amurka sun kiyasta cewa zuwa 20 ga Disamba akwai Cubans 5,000 zuwa 6,000 a Angola."[88] "Majiyoyin Cuba, duk da haka, sun nuna cewa adadin ya

Labaran jaridu na duniya

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Yan Afirka ta Kudu sun yi nasarar ɓoye tsoma bakinsu daga kallon duniya na ɗan lokaci kaɗan. Har ma ta ɗauki MPLA har zuwa 23 ga Oktoba 1975 don lura cewa ba farar fata haya ba ne amma SADF na ci gaba a Luanda. Amma duk da haka an ɗauki tsawon wata guda kafin manema labarai na duniya su lura: kwana guda bayan da aka dakatar da ci gaban Afirka ta Kudu a gabar teku, wakilan biyu daga Reuters da British Independent Television News sun buga labarin cewa 'yan Afirka ta Kudu na yaƙi a Angola.[152] A ranar 23 ga Nuwamban 1975 wata babbar jaridar Yamma, Washington Post, ta ba da sanarwar cewa sojojin Afirka ta Kudu na yau da kullun suna fafatawa a cikin Angola. Ko da yake wasu takaddun har yanzu sun yi jinkirin bi, misali, New York Times a ranar 12 ga Disamba, gaskiyar ta zama sananne a duniya. Jama'ar Afirka ta Kudu ma an ajiye su a cikin duhu, kuma a ranar 19 ga Disamba kawai sun sami ƙarin bayani game da abin da ake kira "Yaƙin kan iyaka" lokacin da takardu suka buga hotunan sojojin SADF da FAPLA da Cubans suka kama.

Kudancin Gaba

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An dakatar da ci gaban SADF

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Iyakokin ayyukan SADF.

A lokacin da FAPLA da Cubans suka sami damar mai da hankali sosai ga kudancin gaba bayan yakin Quifangondo, 'yan Afirka ta Kudu sun sami ci gaba sosai. A ranar 6 da 7 ga Nuwamba 1975, Rundunar Ayyuka ta Zulu ta mamaye biranen tashar jiragen ruwa na Benguela da Lobito wadanda aka yi watsi da su ba zato ba tsammani. An mika garuruwa da biranen da SADF ta mamaye ga UNITA. A tsakiyar Angola, a lokaci guda, rukunin yaki na Foxbat ya yi tafiyar kilomita 800 arewa zuwa Luanda.[27] A lokacin ya zama sananne cewa ba za a iya mamaye Luanda ba kafin ranar samun 'yancin kai a ranar 11 ga Nuwamba kuma 'yan Afirka ta Kudu sun yi la'akari da dakatar da ci gaban kuma su ja da baya. Amma a ranar 10 ga Nuwamba 1975 Vorster ya amince da buƙatar gaggawa ta UNITA don ci gaba da matsin lamba na soja da nufin kwace yankuna da yawa gwargwadon yiwuwar kafin taron OAU mai zuwa.[89] Don haka, Zulu da Foxbat sun ci gaba da tafiya arewa tare da sabbin rukunin yaƙi guda biyu da aka kafa a cikin ƙasa (X-Ray da Orange) kuma "akwai dalili kaɗan na tunanin FAPLA za ta iya dakatar da wannan ƙarfin da aka faɗaɗa daga mamaye Luanda cikin mako guda."[90] Cikin Nuwamba da Disamba 1975, yawan sojojin SADF a Angola ya kai 2,900 zuwa 3,000.[91]

Zulu yanzu ya fuskanci tsayin daka mai ƙarfi da ke ci gaba a Novo Redondo bayan haka sa'a ta canza don goyon bayan FAPLA da Cubans. Ƙarin sojojin Cuban na farko sun isa Porto Amboim, 'yan kilomita kaɗan arewa da Novo Redondo, cikin sauri suka lalata gadoji uku da suka haye kogin Queve, wanda ya dakatar da ci gaban Afirka ta Kudu tare da gabar teku a ranar 13 ga Nuwamba 1975.[92] Duk da ƙoƙarin haɗin gwiwa don ci gaba zuwa arewa zuwa Novo Redondo, SADF ta kasa karya kariyar FAPLA.[93][94][95] A cikin wani ci gaba na ƙarshe mai nasara, rundunar Afirka ta Kudu da sojojin UNITA sun mamaye Luso a kan layin dogo na Benguela a ranar 11 ga Disamba wanda suka riƙe har zuwa 27 ga Disamba.[96]

A tsakiyar Disamba, Afirka ta Kudu ta tsawaita aikin soja kuma ta kira ajiyar sojoji.[97][98] "Wata alama ce ta tsananin halin da ake ciki …. ita ce ɗaya daga cikin mafi girman kiran sojoji a tarihin Afirka ta Kudu yana faruwa a yanzu".[99] Zuwa ƙarshen Disamba, Cuba ta tura sojoji 3,500 zuwa 4,000 a Angola, daga cikinsu 1,000 suna tsaron Cabinda [100] kuma a ƙarshe tafiya ta juya don goyon bayan MPLA.[31] Baya ga "kama" a kudancin gaba,[101] Afirka ta Kudu ta fuskanci wasu manyan matsaloli guda biyu: kafofin watsa labarai na duniya suna lura da aikin da kuma canjin manufofin Amurka.

Afirka ta Kudu ta janye

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Dangane da waɗannan ci gaban, Pretoria dole ta yanke shawara ko za ta ci gaba da shiga kuma ta kawo ƙarin sojoji. A ƙarshen Disamba 1975, an yi muhawara mai zafi tsakanin Vorster, ministan harkokin waje Muller, ministan tsaro Botha, shugaban BOSS (Hukumar Tsaron Jiha ta Afirka ta Kudu) van den Bergh da wasu manyan jami'ai game da janyewa ko zama. Zaire, UNITA da Amurka sun matsa wa Afirka ta Kudu ta zauna. Amma Amurka ba za ta goyi bayan shigar Afirka ta Kudu a fili ba kuma ta tabbatar da ci gaba da taimakon soja idan akwai rikici.

Tankin PT-76 mai tukin Cuba a titunan Luanda, 1976.

A ranar 30 ga Disamba 1975, Vorster ya shirya janyewa bayan zaman gaggawa na OAU a Addis Ababa a ranar 13 ga Janairu 1976, zuwa layin kilomita 50 zuwa 80 arewa da iyakar Namibia.[102] "A fannin soja ci gaban ya tsaya cak ko ta yaya, kamar yadda duk yunƙurin Kungiyoyin Yaki Orange da X-Ray na faɗaɗa yaƙin zuwa cikin ƙasa an tilasta musu su koma baya saboda gadoji da aka lalata."[103]

A farkon Janairu 1976, Cubans sun ƙaddamar da harin farko na kai hari wanda ya kori Foxbat daga tsaunukan Tongo da Medunda.[104] Taron OAU wanda 'yan Afirka ta Kudu suka yi fatan hakan ya ƙarshe ya tattauna batun Angola kuma suka kada kuri'a a ranar 23 ga Janairu 1976, inda suka la'anci shigar Afirka ta Kudu kuma suka buƙaci ta janye.[105] Da suka ga yadda Cubans suka yi da kuma sanyin gwiwa daga Yamma, Pretoria ta zaɓi ta janye kuma ta ba da umarnin janyewar sojojinta daga Angola.[106][107]

Ra'ayin gwamnatin Pretoria a lokacin an bayyana shi a wani jawabi da Botha ya yi a gaban majalisar dokokin Afirka ta Kudu a ranar 17 ga Afrilu 1978, inda ya zargi Amurka da "saba wa alkawarin ba su duk goyon bayan da ake buƙata a yakin su na cin nasara kan MPLA":[77] "A kan waɗanne ƙasashe makwabta muka ɗauki matakai na cin zarafi? Na san lokaci guda ɗaya kawai a cikin 'yan shekarun nan, lokacin da muka haye iyaka kuma wannan shi ne batun Angola lokacin da muka yi haka tare da amincewa da ilimin Amurkawa. Amma sun bar mu a cikin tarkon. Za mu sake ba da wannan labarin: dole ne a ba da labarin da kuma yadda muka, tare da ilimin su, muka shiga can kuma muka yi aiki a Angola tare da ilimin su, yadda suka ƙarfafa mu mu yi aiki kuma, lokacin da muka kusan kai ga kololuwa, an bar mu ba tare da tausayi ba."[108]

Da zarar an yanke shawara, Afirka ta Kudu ta gaggauta janye sojojinta zuwa Namibia. A ƙarshen Janairu, SADF ta bar garuruwan Cela da Novo Redondo [109] Bayan 'yan gumurzu kaɗan, Cubans sun kasance a bayan 'yan Afirka ta Kudu da suka ja da baya kuma cikin sauƙi suka shawo kan sauran tsayin daka na UNITA. Zuwa farkon Fabrairu 1976, SADF ta koma kudancin Angola, ta bar filayen nakiyoyi da gadoji da aka tarwatsa. Babban birnin UNITA, Nova Lisboa (Huambo) ya faɗa hannun FAPLA a ranar 8 ga Fabrairu, tashoshin jiragen ruwa na Lobito da Benguela a ranar 10 ga Fabrairu. Zuwa ranar 14 ga Fabrairu, iko da layin dogo na Benguala ya cika kuma a ranar 13 ga Maris UNITA ta rasa matsayinta na ƙarshe a kudu maso gabashin Angola, Gago Gouthinho (Lumbala N'Guimbo). A cikin wannan harin ne Cubans suka fara amfani da sojojinsu na sama.[110]

Sojojin SADF dubu huɗu zuwa biyar sun ajiye wani yanki tare da iyakar Namibiya har zuwa kilomita 80 a zurfi har sai Angola ta ba da tabbaci cewa ba za ta samar da sansanoni ga SWAPO ba kuma za ta ci gaba da samar da wutar lantarki ga Namibiya daga madatsun ruwa na Cunene.[111] Yayin da Cubans da FAPLA ke gabatowa a hankali zuwa kudancin iyakar, Afirka ta Kudu da MPLA sun fara tattaunawa kai tsaye game da janyewar Afirka ta Kudu wanda gwamnatocin Birtaniya da Soviet suka yi sulhu.[112] Neto ya ba da umarni ga FAPLA da Cubans su tsaya a wani nesa daga iyakar, don kauce wa abin da wasu ke tsoron zai iya zama rikici mai girma.[112] A madadin amincewar Afirka ta Kudu, ya ba da tabbacin kare amincin jarin Afirka ta Kudu na dalar Amurka miliyan 180 a cikin rukunin samar da wutar lantarki na Cunene a arewa maso yammacin Namibiya, kusa da iyakar Angola.[112] A ranar 25 ga Maris, Botha ya sanar da janyewar dukkan sojojin Afirka ta Kudu daga Angola kafin ranar 27 ga Maris 1976.[113] A ranar 27 ga Maris, motocin soja 60 na ƙarshe sun haye iyakar zuwa Namibia.

Haɗin kai

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Bayan janyewar Afirka ta Kudu, ƙarfin FNLA da UNITA ya ragargaje kuma MPLA ta kasance ita kaɗai ce mai iko.[77] Da taimakon kawayenta na Cuba, MPLA "ba wai kawai ta ci nasara a kan abokan gaba ba - FNLA da UNITA - amma a cikin wannan tsari ta kori CIA kuma ta wulakanta babbar injin yaƙi ta Pretoria."[110] Duk abin da ya rage na UNITA ya ja da baya zuwa cikin dajin Angola da Zaire. Wasu kasashen Afirka sun soki UNITA a bainar jama'a saboda alakarta da gwamnatin wariyar launin fata, CIA da kuma 'yan haya farare.[114]

Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta yi taro don tattauna "aikin ta'addanci da Afirka ta Kudu ta aikata a kan Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Angola" kuma a ranar 31 ga Maris 1976, ta ayyana Afirka ta Kudu a matsayin mai kai hari, tana buƙatar ta biya diyya don barnar yaƙi. A matakin kasa da kasa, Afirka ta Kudu ta sami kanta cikin keɓe gaba daya kuma gazawar Operation Savannah ta bar ta "ba tare da wani abu mai daɗi ba."[115] "Tasirin cikin gida na bala'in Angola ya fara bayyana cikin sauri lokacin da, a ranar 16 ga Yuni 1976 - wanda nasarar FAPLA-Cuban ta ƙarfafa - Tashe-tashen hankula na Soweto ya fara, wanda ya buɗe wani lokaci na tashin hankali na farar hula wanda zai ci gaba har zuwa kuma bayan rushewar wariyar launin fata."[115] Wani koma baya ga Pretoria a cikin shekaru huɗu shi ne ƙarshen mulkin fararen fata a Rhodesia yayin da ta fito a matsayin ƙasa ta gaba mai mulkin baƙar fata ta Zimbabwe, wanda ya kammala keɓewar yanki na Afirka ta Kudu mai wariyar launin fata. Angola ta sami amincewa daga OAU a ranar 10 ga Fabrairu 1976. OAU ta amince da MPLA a matsayin gwamnatin Angola. Yawancin kasashen duniya, duk da cewa ba Amurka ba, ba da daɗewa ba suka yi haka.[112] Amurka ta kasa hana shigarta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya a matsayin memba na 146.[116]

A lokacin da aka kai kololuwar tura sojoji a 1976, Cuba tana da sojoji 36,000 da aka ajiye a Angola.[117] A taron su a Conakry a ranar 14 ga Maris 1976, lokacin da aka riga aka tabbatar da nasara, Castro da Neto sun yanke shawarar cewa Cubans za su janye a hankali, suna barin isasshen maza don shirya rundunar sojoji mai ƙarfi, ta zamani, mai iya tabbatar da tsaron MPLA a nan gaba ba tare da taimakon waje ba. Cubans ba su da niyyar shiga cikin yaƙi mai tsawo na cikin gida na yaki da 'yan tawaye kuma suka fara rage kasancewarsu a Angola kamar yadda aka tsara bayan janyewar 'yan Afirka ta Kudu. Zuwa ƙarshen Mayu, fiye da sojoji 3,000 sun riga sun koma Cuba, kuma da yawa suna kan hanya.[118] Zuwa ƙarshen shekara sojojin Cuban sun ragu zuwa 12,000.

Fidel Castro 1978 yana magana a Havana, Hoto: Marcelo Montecino.

Cubans suna da babban fata cewa bayan nasarar su a Angola, tare da haɗin gwiwar USSR, za su iya cire dukkan kudancin Afirka daga tasirin Amurka da China.[119] A Angola, sun kafa sansanonin horo da yawa ga 'yan tawaye na Namibia (SWAPO), Rhodesia (ZAPU) da Afirka ta Kudu (ANC). Wani rahoton leƙen asiri na SADF a 1977 ya kammala "cewa matsayin horo na SWAPO ya inganta sosai saboda horon da suka samu daga masu horarwa na Cuban."[120] Cuba ta ga babban aikinta na biyu a horarwa da samar da makamai ga FAPLA wanda Soviets suka ba da karimci da makamai masu ci gaba ciki har da tankuna da kuma rundunar jiragen sama ta kanta tare da jiragen yaƙi na MiG-21.

A farkon 1977, sabuwar gwamnatin Carter tana da niyyar amincewa da gwamnatin MPLA duk da kasancewar sojojin Cuban suna zaton za a janye su da zarar an warware matsalar Namibiya kuma an tabbatar da iyakar kudancin Angola.[121] Sojojin MPLA da Cuban suna da iko a kan dukkan biranen kudancin kasar a 1977, amma hanyoyin da ke kudu sun fuskanci hare-hare akai-akai daga UNITA. Savimbi ya nuna niyyarsa na sulhu da MPLA da kuma kafa gwamnatin haɗin kai, ta gurguzu, amma ya dage kan janyewar Cuban da farko. "Maƙiyi na gaskiya shine mulkin mallaka na Cuban," Savimbi ya gaya wa manema labarai, yana gargadi, "Cubans sun mamaye ƙasar, amma ba dade ko ba jima za su sha wahalar Vietnam nasu a Angola."

A matakin kasa da kasa, nasarar Cuba a kan Afirka ta Kudu ta haɓaka martabar Castro a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin manyan shugabanni a Ƙungiyar Kasashe Masu Zaman Kansu wanda ya kasance babban sakatare daga 1979 zuwa 1983.[122] Kodayake tare da taimakon Cuba gwamnatin MPLA ta kafu sosai, yunƙurin Cuban na mika tsaron ƙasar ya ci tura kuma ba da daɗewa ba ta shiga cikin yakin MPLA da UNITA.

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Clodfelter
  2. ↑ "Angola". Britannica. Cuba poured in troops to defend the MPLA, pushed the internationally isolated South Africans out of Angola, and gained control of all the provincial capitals. The Cuban expeditionary force, which eventually numbered some 40,000 to 50,000 soldiers, remained in Angola to pacify the country and ward off South African attacks.
  3. ↑ Cornwell, Richard (1 November 2000). "The War of Independence" (PDF). Institute for Security Studies. p. 59. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
  4. ↑ Wright, George in: The Destruction of a Nation: United States' Policy toward Angola since 1945, Pluto Press, London, Chicago, 1997, ISBN 0-7453-1029-X, p. 60
  5. ↑ "National Liberation Front of Angola". Answers.com.
  6. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named au18
  7. ↑ Wright, George in: The Destruction of a Nation: United States' Policy toward Angola since 1945, Pluto Press, London, Chicago, 1997, ISBN 0-7453-1029-X, p. 58
  8. ↑ Hurst, Ryan (2009-07-15). "Angolan Civil War (1975-2002)". Retrieved 2020-05-25.
  9. ↑ George, shafuffuka 22–23, 30
  10. ↑ Mabeko, Tali in: Dissidences, shafi na 348
  11. ↑ George, shafi na 44
  12. ↑ Takarda daga Cibiyar Bayanai ta Rundunar Sojojin Juyin Juya Hali na Kuba, CIDFAR
  13. ↑ Gleijeses, shafuffuka 244–245 (Maganganu daga hirar da aka yi da Cadelo da daga Cienfuegos zuwa Senen Casas, Havana, 22 ga Nuwamba 1974)
  14. ↑ Gleijeses yana kawo: (Agostinho Neto: Bukatu na gaggawa. Jerin bukatu zuwa Kwamitin Tsakanin Jam’iyyar Kwaminis ta Kuba, 26 Janairu 1975, da ke cikin "Visita", shafuffuka 22–23)
  15. ↑ García Márquez, Gabriel in: Operation Carlota, http://www.rhodesia.nl/marquez.htm
  16. ↑ Westad, Odd Arne in: "Moscow and the Angolan Crisis, 1974-1976: A New Pattern of Intervention", Cold War International History Project Bulletin, nos. 8-9, shafi na 24
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Library of Congress Country Studies
  18. ↑ George, shafi na 11
  19. ↑ "Agreement between the government of the Republic of South Africa and the government of Portugal in regard to the first phase of development of the water resources of the Cunene river basin" (Press release). Département de l'administration et des finances (Portugal). 21 January 1969.
  20. ↑ Stührenberg, Michael a cikin: Die Zeit 17/1988, Die Schlacht am Ende der Welt, shafi na 11
  21. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 273-276
  22. ↑ Dr. Leopold Scholtz: The Namibian Border War (Jami’ar Stellenbosch)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named au11
  24. ↑ Gleijeses yana nakalto: Spies, F. J. du Toit a cikin: Operasie Savannah. Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, shafi na 64–65
  25. ↑ Gleijeses yana nakalto: Deon Geldenhuys a cikin: The Diplomacy of Isolation: South African Foreign Policy Making, shafi na 80
  26. ↑ Hilton Hamann (2001). Days of the Generals. Zebra. pp. 22–23. ISBN 1-86872-340-2.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named au6
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Smith, shafi na 71
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 George, shafi na 68
  30. ↑ Gleijeses yana nakalto: Bureau of Intelligence and Research, DOS, a cikin: Angola: The MPLA Prepares for Independence, 22 ga Satumba 1975, shafi na 4–5, National Security Archive, Washington, yana nakalto: Le Monde, 13 Satumba 1975, shafi na 3 da kuma Diaz Arguelles zuwa Colomé, 1 Oktoba 1975, shafi na 11
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Smith, shafi na 72
  32. ↑ George, shafi na 69
  33. ↑ Smith, shafi na 62
  34. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 298
  35. ↑ Gleijeses yana nakalto: Deon Geldenhuys a cikin: The Diplomacy of Isolation: South African Foreign Policy Making, shafi na 80, yana nakalto: du Preez, Sophia a cikin: Avontuur in Angola. Die verhaal van Suid-Afrika se soldate in Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, shafi na 32, 63, 86 da kuma Spies, F. J. du Toit a cikin: Operasie Savannah. Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, shafi na 93–101
  36. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Gleijeses
  37. ↑ George, shafi na 71
  38. ↑ Marcum, John a cikin: Lessons of Angola, Foreign Affairs 54, No. 3 (April 1976), an nakalto a: Smith, shafi na 62
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 George, shafi na 66
  40. ↑ "CNN Cold War - Historical Documents: Cuba-Angola letters". Archived from the original on 1 January 2007.
  41. ↑ http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB67/gleijeses5.pdf - Document from the Centro de Informacion de la Defensa de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias, CIDFAR
  42. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 255
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 George, shafi na 64
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Gleijeses quoting: Westad, Odd Arne in: Moscow and the Angolan Crisis 1974-76: A New Pattern of Intervention, Cold War International Project Bulletin, n.8-9, shafi na 25
  45. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: Ministerio de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias: Composicion de fuerzas y medios de la unidad incluyendo el incremento del Punto 4
  46. ↑ George, shafi na 65
  47. ↑ CIA, National Intelligence Daily, 11 October 1975, shafi na 4
  48. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 228
  49. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 255–256, 265
  50. ↑ George, shafi na 67
  51. ↑ Washington Post, 24 August 1975, B1
  52. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 258 da kuma quoting: Rand Daily Mail, 3 August 1975, shafi na 5
  53. ↑ George, shafi na 73–74
  54. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 269
  55. ↑ George, shafi na 76
  56. ↑ George, shafi na 77–78
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  58. ↑ Gleijeses yana ambaton: Ministerio de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias: Batallon de Tropas Especiales, n. d.
  59. ↑ George, shafi na 80–81, 99
  60. ↑ N. Broutens, Soviet Politbüro, shugaban sashen harkokin waje, a cikin Une Odyssée Africaine (Faransa, 2006, 59min) wanda: Jihan El Tahri ya jagoranta
  61. ↑ George, shafi na 79–80
  62. ↑ George, shafi na 82
  63. ↑ George, shafi na 82–86
  64. ↑ George, shafi na 89
  65. ↑ George, shafi na 91
  66. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 310–311
  67. ↑ Ambaton daga Bridgeland a cikin: Savimbi, shafi na 151
  68. ↑ Gleijeses yana ambaton: Rand Daily Mail, 10 ga Nuwamba 1975, shafi na 3
  69. ↑ Jornal Novo, 12 ga Nuwamba 1975, shafi na 15
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 George, shafi na 101
  71. ↑ Takarda daga Centro de Informacion de la Defensa de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias, CIDFAR, [Cibiyar Bayanai ta Sojoji])
  72. ↑ Gleijeses yana ambaton: Vermerk über das Gespräch m. d. Präsidenten d. VR Angola, Genossen Dr. Agositinho Neto, am 26 Fabrairu 1976, shafi na 2, SED, DY30IV2/2.035/128
  73. ↑ George, shafi na 108–109
  74. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 51–52; yana ambaton: Spies, F. J. du Toit in. Operasie Savannah. Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, 1989, shafi na 140–143; yana ambaton: du Preez, Sophia in: Avontuur in Angola. Die verhaal van Suid-Afrika se soldate in Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, 1989, shafi na 121–122; yana ambaton: de Villiers, PW, shafi na 259
  75. ↑ Guardian, Manchester, 18 Fabrairu 1976, shafi na 2
  76. ↑ CIA, Intelligence Checklist, 14 ga Nuwamba 1975, shafi na A2–A5, NSA
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 Smith, shafi na 73
  78. ↑ Cohen, Hermann, National Security Council, USA, in Une Odyssée Africaine (Faransa, 2006, 59m) wanda: Jihan El Tahri ya jagoranta
  79. ↑ Gräfin Dönhoff, Marion in: Die Buren sind abgezogen, Pretorias Chance zum Umdenken, Die Zeit 36, 1988, shafi na 7
  80. ↑ George, shafi na 99
  81. ↑ Frank Wisner Jr., Jakada, Ma'aikatar Harkokin Waje ta Amurka, a cikin Une Odyssée Africaine (Faransa, 2006, 59m) wanda: Jihan El Tahri ya jagoranta
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 "Memorandum of Conversation (between United States and China)" (PDF). Ma'aikatar Harkokin Waje ta Amurka. 3 ga Disamba 1975. Check date values in: |date= (help) Takarda da National Security Archive ta samu, daga National Archives Record Group 59. Records of the Department of State, Policy Planning Staff, Director's Files (Winston Lord)
  83. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 332
  84. ↑ "Clark Amendment article". cuny.edu.
  85. ↑ Gleijeses, shafi na 334–337
  86. ↑ Wright, George in: The Destruction of a Nation: United States' Policy toward Angola since 1945, Pluto Press, London, Chicago, 1997, ISBN 0-7453-1029-X, shafi na 100
  87. ↑ "(Takarda da aka samu daga fayilolin Ma'aikatar Harkokin Waje ta hanyar FOIA)" (PDF). Ma'aikatar Harkokin Waje ta Amurka. Janairu 1976. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  88. ↑ Gleijeses yana ambaton: Sakataren Harkokin Waje ga Duk Ofisoshin Jakadancin Jamhuriyar Amurka, 20 ga Disamba 1975
  89. ↑ George, p. 93
  90. ↑ George, p. 94
  91. ↑ Spies, F. J. du Toit in. Operasie Savannah. Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, 1989, p. 215
  92. ↑ George, pp. 94–96
  93. ↑ Observer, 7 December 1975, p. 11
  94. ↑ Times, 11 December 1975, p. 7
  95. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: du Preez, Sophia in: Avontuur in Angola. Die verhaal van Suid-Afrika se soldate in Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, 1989, pp. 154–173; quoting: Spies, F. J. du Toit in. Operasie Savannah. Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, 1989, pp. 203–18
  96. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: du Preez, Sophia in: Avontuur in Angola. Die verhaal van Suid-Afrika se soldate in Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, 1989, pp. 186–201
  97. ↑ Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), 8, 28 December 1975, E3 (quoting Botha)
  98. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: Steenkamp, Willem in: South Africa's Border War 1966-1989, Gibraltar,1989, p. 55
  99. ↑ Rand Daily Mail, 16 January
  100. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named au19
  101. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: Secretary of State to all American Republic Diplomatic posts, 20 December 1975, NSA
  102. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: Spies, F. J. du Toit in: Operasie Savannah. Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, 1989, pp. 260–263; quoting: de Villers Dirk and Johanna in: PW-A biography of South Africa's President PW Botha, Cape Town: Tafelberg, 1984, pp. 266–269
  103. ↑ George, p. 107
  104. ↑ George, p. 105
  105. ↑ George, p. 106
  106. ↑ Gleijeses, pp. 337, 341, also quoting: See the pessimistic reports of Generals André van Deventer, Magnus Malan and Viljoen in Spies, F. J. du Toit in: Operasie Savannah. Angola 1975-1976, Pretoria, 1989, pp. 259, 261, 264 and: World (Johannesburg), 3 December 1975, p. 1: Quotations from Admiral H. H. Biermann
  107. ↑ Thom, William in: Angola's 1975-76 Civil War, Autumn 1998, 1-44, p. 31
  108. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: Botha, P. W., 27 January 1976, Republic of South Africa, House of Assembly Debates, col. 114
  109. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: CIA, National Intelligence Daily, 8 January 1976
  110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 George, p. 112
  111. ↑ Washington Post, 4 February 1976, p. 1
  112. ↑ 112.0 112.1 112.2 112.3 Time: Recognition, Not Control, 1 March 1976
  113. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: Republic of South Africa, House of Assembly Debates, 25 March 1976, cols. 3916-17
  114. ↑ Brittain, Victoria in: Guardian: Jonas Savimbi, Angolan nationalist whose ambition kept his country at war, 25 February 2002
  115. ↑ 115.0 115.1 George, p. 114
  116. ↑ George, p. 113
  117. ↑ afrol News, 6. Dec. 2005 / Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores
  118. ↑ García Márquez, Gabriel in: Operation Carlota, 1976, http://www.rhodesia.nl/marquez.htm
  119. ↑ Gleijeses quoting: Matthews, Herbert in: Forward with Fidel Castro, Anywhere, New York Times, 4 March 1976, p. 31
  120. ↑ Scholtz, Leopold, Stellenbosch University, Vol. 34, Issue 1, 2006: The Namibian Border War
  121. ↑ Wright, George in: The Destruction of a Nation: United States' Policy toward Angola since 1945, Pluto Press, London, Chicago, 1997, ISBN 0-7453-1029-X, p. 78
  122. ↑ George
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