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Walter Reuther

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Walter Reuther
Rayuwa
Haihuwa Wheeling (en) Fassara, 1 Satumba 1907
ƙasa Tarayyar Amurka
Mutuwa Pellston (en) Fassara, 9 Mayu 1970
Yanayin mutuwa accidental death (en) Fassara (aviation accident (en) Fassara)
Ƴan uwa
Ahali Roy Reuther (en) Fassara da Victor G. Reuther (en) Fassara
Karatu
Makaranta Fordson High School (en) Fassara
Harsuna Turanci
Sana'a
Sana'a trade unionist (en) Fassara da ɗan siyasa
Kyaututtuka
Mamba American Academy of Arts and Sciences (en) Fassara
Imani
Jam'iyar siyasa Democratic Party (en) Fassara
Socialist Party of America (en) Fassara
IMDb nm0720717

Walter Philip Reuther (/ˈruːθər/; Satumba 1, 1907 - Mayu 9, 1970) ya kasance shugaban Amurka ne na ƙungiyar ma'aikata da masu fafutukar kare hakkin bil'adama wanda ya gina United Automobile Workers (UAW) a cikin ɗayan ƙungiyoyin ma'aikata masu ci gaba a tarihin Amurka. Ya yi la'akari da ƙungiyoyin ma'aikata ba a matsayin ƙungiyoyi masu sha'awa na musamman ba amma a matsayin kayan aiki don inganta Adalci na zamantakewa da haƙƙin ɗan adam a cikin al'ummomin dimokuradiyya. Ya yi amfani da albarkatun UAW da tasirinsa don ba da shawara ga haƙƙin ma'aikata, haƙƙin jama'a, haƙƙin mata, kula da kiwon lafiya na duniya, ilimin jama'a.Ya yi imani da tsarin dimokuradiyya ta zamantakewa na Sweden da canjin al'umma ta hanyar rashin biyayya ga jama'a.[1][2] Ya kafa AFL-CIO a 1955 tare da George Meany . [3] Ya tsira daga yunkurin kisan kai sau biyu, ciki har da daya a gida inda aka harbe shi da fashewar bindiga 12 da aka harba ta taga na kicinsa.[4] Ya kasance shugaban kasa na huɗu kuma mafi tsawo na UAW, yana aiki daga 1946 har zuwa mutuwarsa a 1970. [5]

A matsayinsa na shugaban ma'aikatan mota miliyan biyar, ciki har da masu ritaya da iyalansu, Reuther ya kasance mai tasiri a cikin Jam'iyyar Democrat. Bayan Bay of Pigs a 1961, Shugaba John F. Kennedy ya aika Reuther zuwa Cuba don tattaunawa kan musayar fursunoni tare da Fidel Castro . [6] Ya taimaka wajen jagorantar kirkirar Peace Corps da kuma tallafawa Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta 1964, Dokar 'YanYancin Zabe ta 1965, [7] Medicare da Medicaid, [4] da Dokar Gidaje Masu Kyau. [5][8] Ya sadu da mako-mako a 1964 da 1965 tare da Shugaba Lyndon B. Johnson a Fadar White House don tattauna manufofi da dokoki ga Babban Al'umma da Yakin Talauci. Jam'iyyar Republican ta yi taka tsantsan ga Reuther, wanda ya jagoranci dan takarar Shugaban kasa Richard Nixon ya ce game da John F. Kennedy a lokacin zaben 1960, "Ba zan iya tunanin wani abu da ke da lahani ga wannan al'umma fiye da kowane shugaban da ya kamata a zabe shi, sabili da haka ya zama fursuna ga, shugaban siyasa kamar Walter Reuther. "Dan siyasa mai ra'ayin mazan jiya Barry Goldwater ya bayyana cewa Reuthercian "ya fi haɗari ga kasarmu fiye da Sputnik ko wani abu da Soviet Rasha zai iya yi".

Wani abokin tarayya mai karfi na Martin Luther King Jr. da kuma ƙungiyar kare hakkin bil'adama, Reuther ya yi tafiya tare da Sarki a Detroit, [9] Birmingham, [10] Montgomery, da Jackson. [11] Lokacin da aka daure Sarki da wasu ciki har da yara a Birmingham, Alabama, kuma Sarki ya rubuta sanannen wasikar daga Birmingham Jail, Reuther ya shirya $ 160,000 don sakin masu zanga-zangar. Ya kuma taimaka wajen shirya da kuma tallafawa Maris a Washington a ranar 28 ga watan Agusta, 1963, yana ba da maganganu daga matakai na Lincoln Memorial jim kadan kafin Sarki ya ba da jawabinsa na tarihi "Ina da Mafarki" a kan National Mall.[12] Wani mai goyon bayan Cesar Chavez da United Farm Workers, ya nemi Robert F. Kennedy ya ziyarci kuma ya tallafa wa Chavez. Ya yi aiki a cikin kwamitin daraktoci na Ƙungiyar Ƙasa don Ci gaban Mutanen Launi (NAACP) kuma yana ɗaya daga cikin waɗanda suka kafa Amurkawa don Ayyukan Dimokuradiyya.[13] Mai kula da muhalli na rayuwa, Reuther ya taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen Selma da kudade da shirya Ranar Duniya ta farko a ranar 22 ga Afrilu, 1970 kuma ya mutu makonni bayan haka a hatsarin jirgin sama yana da shekaru 62. A cewar Denis Hayes, babban mai shirya Ranar Duniya ta farko, "Ba tare da UAW ba, Ranar Duniya na farko za ta iya fashewa!"

Reuther ta amince da ita ta Time Magazine a matsayin daya daga cikin mutane 100 mafi tasiri na karni na 20. Shugaba Bill Clinton ne ya ba shi lambar yabo ta 'yanci ta shugaban kasa a shekarar 1995, wanda ya ce a bikin, "Walter Reuther dan Amurka ne mai hangen nesa har yanzu a gaban lokutan sa cewa kodayake ya mutu kwata na karni da suka gabata, al'ummarmu har yanzu ba ta kama mafarkinsa ba. "

Rayuwa ta farko, ilimi, da imani

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Alamar a garin Reuther na Wheeling, West Virginia

Reuthers sun kasance masu taurin kai kuma sun koyi kada su ɓata. Don ajiye kuɗi, mahaifiyar Walter Anna za ta yi wa ’ya’yanta tufafin da aka yi amfani da su na buhunan gari. Lokacin da wata kwalba mai fashewa ta makantar da Valentine wani bangare, Walter ya fara yin ayyuka marasa kyau don kawo kudin shiga na iyali yana da shekaru tara. Daga baya ya bar makarantar sakandare a lokacin ƙaramarsa kuma ya yi aiki a wata masana'anta don taimaka wa dangi. [14] Ya koyi da kansa game da rashin isasshen lafiyar ma'aikaci lokacin da 400-pound ya mutu cewa shi da wasu mutane uku suna dagawa sun fadi kuma suka yanke babban yatsa.

Tun daga ƙuruciya, yaran Reuther sun sami darussan wariyar launin fata. Wata rana sun ga yara maza na yankin suna jefa duwatsu ga baƙar fata ana jigilar su zuwa arewa ta hanyar garinsu a cikin motocin jirgin kasa. Mahaifin su ya ba su gargadi mai tsanani kada su bi da wani mutum kamar haka. Yaran Reuther ba su taɓa mantawa da wannan darasi ba, suna ciyar da sauran rayuwarsu suna gwagwarmaya don daidaito na launin fata da tattalin arziki ga dukan mutane.

Daga gida zuwa Detroit

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A shekara ta 1927, yana da shekaru 19, Reuther ya bar Wheeling zuwa Detroit kuma ya yi jayayya da kansa a cikin ƙwararren kayan aiki da aikin mai yin mutuwa a Kamfanin Motar Ford wanda ke buƙatar ƙwarewar shekaru 25. Mai kula da aikin ya damu da cewa a lokacin da yake ƙarami zai iya karanta zane-zane kuma ya mutu, ya zama ɗaya daga cikin injiniyoyi mafi girma a masana'antar. Ya kammala makarantar sakandare yayin da yake aiki a Ford kuma ya shiga Kwalejin Birnin Detroit, wanda a yau ake kira Jami'ar Jihar Wayne. A shekara ta 1932, an kore shi saboda shirya wani taro ga Norman Thomas wanda ke neman shugaban Amurka a matsayin dan takarar jam'iyyar Socialist Party of America. Rubuce-rubucen aikinsa na Ford ya bayyana cewa ya bar aikinsa da son rai, amma Reuther da kansa ya ci gaba da cewa an kore shi saboda ayyukansa na gurguzu. Ko ta yaya, Walter da Victor sun yanke shawarar cewa lokaci ne cikakke don cika mafarkin su na ƙuruciya da tafiya a duniya.

Yawon shakatawa na duniya

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Lokacin da Henry Ford ya yi ritaya daga Model T a 1927, ya sayar da kayan aikin ga Tarayyar Soviet, kuma ana buƙatar ma'aikatan Amurka waɗanda suka san yadda za a yi amfani da kayan aikin. An yi wa Walter da Victor alkawarin aiki don koyar da ma'aikatan Soviet yadda za a gudanar da injuna da layin taro. Tare da wannan tabbacin aiki, 'yan uwan sun fara tafiya ta shekaru uku, fara tuka keke ta Turai, sannan suna aiki a masana'antar mota a Gorky, a Tarayyar Soviet, inda masana'antun da ba a dumama su ba sau da yawa suna da digiri 30-40 Fahrenheit a ƙasa da sifili. Sau da yawa ya rubuta wasiƙu ga Moscow Daily News yana sukar rashin inganci da yawa da ke da alaƙa da yadda kwaminisanci ke sarrafa shuke-shuke.

Bayan kusan shekaru biyu a Tarayyar Soviet, 'yan uwan sun yi tafiya ta Turkiyya, Iran, Indiya ta Burtaniya, da China. Bayan sun haye Tekun Gabashin China, sun gama yawon shakatawa na Gabas ta Tsakiya ta hanyar keke a duk faɗin Japan. A ƙarshe, bayan sun bar gida kusan kusan shekaru uku, sun sami aiki don wucewa a kan Jirgin ruwa na SS President Harding zuwa San Francisco kuma sun gaggauta komawa Detroit inda ɗan'uwansu Roy ya riga ya shiga cikin shirya ma'aikatan mota. Walter daga baya ya bayyana cewa yawon shakatawa na duniya ya koya masa cewa "duk mutane suna son manufofin ɗan adam iri ɗaya na aiki tare da wani matakin tsaro, mafi kyawun dama ga yaransu, kuma ba shakka, 'yanci. Mun ji za mu iya ba da gudummawa ta hanyar taimaka wa ma'aikatan Amurka su gina ƙungiyoyin ma'aikata masu ƙarfi da dimokuradiyya. Wannan shine dalilin da ya sa muka shiga ƙungiyar ma'aikata. "

Haɗin siyasa

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Hotunan 'yan uwan Reuther a Cibiyar Ilimi ta Ilimi ta Walter da May Reuther UAW a arewacin Michigan. Daga hagu zuwa dama, Roy Reuther, Walter Reuther, da Victor Reuther.

Kafin ya shiga Jam'iyyar Democrat, Reuther ya kasance memba na Jam'iyyar Socialist Party of America . Kodayake Reuther koyaushe ya musanta shi, wasu, ciki har da J. Edgar Hoover, sun yi zargin cewa a wani lokaci ya kasance memba na Jam'iyyar Kwaminis. A kan wannan batun, Reuther ya ce a 1938, "Ba ni kuma ban taɓa kasancewa memba na Jam'iyyar Kwaminis ba ko kuma mai goyon bayan manufofinta ko kuma ƙarƙashin iko ko tasiri ta kowace hanya. " Duk da haka, mutane sun yi zargin cewa yana iya biyan bashin ga Jam'iyyar kwaminis na wasu watanni a cikin 1935-36, kuma wani tushe ya lissafa shi a matsayin halartar taron shirin Jam'iyyar Kwamaminis a ƙarshen Fabrairu 1939.[15] Reuther ya yi aiki tare da 'yan Kwaminisanci a tsakiyar shekarun 1930; wannan shine lokacin Popular Front, kuma Jam'iyyar Kwaminisanci ta amince da shi kan batutuwan cikin gida na UAW; amma ƙungiyoyinsa sun kasance tare da' yan Socialist masu adawa da Stalin. Reuther ya ci gaba da aiki a cikin Jam'iyyar Socialist kuma a cikin 1937 ya kasa a yunkurin da ya yi na a zabe shi a Majalisar Birnin Detroit lokacin da AFL da baƙi suka yi adawa da tikitin CIO. (Maganar tarihi Martin Glaberman ta sami hujja game da kasancewar Reuther na kasa da shekara guda na CPUSA a cikin takardun mai fafutukar UAW Nat Ganley . [16] ) Koyaya, ya burge shi da ƙoƙarin da Shugaba Franklin D. Roosevelt ya yi na magance rashin daidaito, daga ƙarshe ya shiga Jam'iyyar Democrat.

Ma'aikatan Motar United (UAW)

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Nasara ta farko a kan kamfanonin motoci

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Motar sauti don West Side Local 174 da Walter Reuther ya yi amfani da shi don shirya membobin UAW

Bayan dawowa daga Turai zuwa Detroit, Reuther ya tashi zuwa South Bend, Indiana, don halartar taron shekara-shekara na biyu a matsayin wakilin sabuwar UAW. Bayan dawowarsa ya zama shugaban sabuwar kungiyar Local 174 a yammacin Detroit kuma tare da ɗan'uwansa Victor, ya jagoranci yajin aikin farko da ya yi nasara a kan manyan motoci a Kelsey Hayes, wanda ya ba da drum da ƙafafun Ford Motor Company. Babban korafin shi ne saurin layin taron ba zai yiwu ba. Ma'aikata suna rasa gaɓoɓin har ma da rayuwarsu suna ƙoƙari a banza su ci gaba da ci gaba da saurin layin taro. A watan Disamba na shekara ta 1936 ne ma'aikatan suka yi yajin aiki kuma suka zauna a cikin masana'antar suna ki barin har sai masu gudanarwa sun tattauna da wakilin su, Walter Reuther .

Lokacin da gudanarwa ta yi ƙoƙarin shiga cikin shuka don cire kayan aiki, dubban masu tausayi sun taru a kan tituna kuma sun toshe ƙofofin. Ford yana buƙatar waɗannan drum din da ƙafafun da ba su da kyau kuma bayan kwanaki 10 na bugawa bangarorin sun zauna. An sami nasarar farko ta UAW don haɗa masana'antun mota. A kan nacewar Reuther, mata sun sami daidaitattun albashi don aiki daidai: santimita 75 a awa daya. An rage saurin layin taron kuma kamfanin ba zai iya korar ma'aikaci don shiga ƙungiyar ba. Membobin UAW Local 174 sun karu daga 200 kafin yajin aikin zuwa 35,000 a cikin shekara mai zuwa.

Janar Motar

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Interstate 696 a Detroit an kira shi Walter P. Reuther Freeway bayan hadarin jirgin sama a shekarar 1970

A cikin 1936, General Motors (GM) ita ce babbar kamfani a duniya kuma tana da tsire-tsire da yawa a Flint, Michigan, kimanin kilomita 60 a arewacin Detroit. Ɗan'uwan Reuther, Roy, ya riga ya kasance a Flint yana tsara shirye-shiryen dabarun da shirya ma'aikata don rufe kamfanin kera motoci har sai ya amince da haƙƙin ma'aikata na yin ƙungiya. Yajin aikin ya fara ne a ranar Sabuwar Shekara, 31 ga Disamba, 1936, lokacin da ma'aikata suka zauna a cikin shuke-shuke kuma suka ki barin. Janar Motar ya mayar da martani ta hanyar kashe zafi a cikin shuka.

A cikin hadin kai tare da masu yajin aiki na Flint, Reuther ya jagoranci yajin aiki a kamfanin Fleetwood na Detroit, inda aka yi gawawwakin motar alatu ta GM, Cadillac. An kuma kira yajin aikin tallafi a Oakland, California; Pontiac, Michigan; da St. Louis, Missouri. Ma'aikatan mota a duk faɗin ƙasar sun shiga cikin aiki don tallafawa masu yajin aiki na Flint.

Komawa a Flint, 'yan sanda sun yi ƙoƙari su tilasta ma'aikata su fita daga masana'antar a cikin abin da aka sani da "Yaƙin Bulls Run". Fiye da' yan sanda ɗari sun kai hari ga masu zanga-zangar da iskar hawaye da harsashi, sun aika da ma'aikata goma sha uku zuwa asibiti tare da raunin bindiga. Victor ya yi amfani da motar mai kyau kuma ya ƙarfafa ma'aikata su yi yaƙi, wanda suka yi ta hanyar rufe ƙofofin ƙofa daga rufin masana'antar da kuma juya wutar wuta a kan 'yan sanda a cikin dare na hunturu na 16 digiri Fahrenheit. Victor da Genora Johnson, jagora na Brigade na Mata, sun juya a cikin motar da ke da kyau suna gargadi ma'aikata su tsaya.

Gwamnan Michigan Frank Murphy ya kira mambobi 2,000 na Tsaro na Kasa, ba don tilasta ma'aikata daga cikin shuke-shuke ba, amma don kiyaye zaman lafiya. Bayan wani gagarumin mataki, ma'aikatan sun sami damar samun iko da masana'antar da ke cikin ƙasar da ta yi injunan Chevrolet. A ƙarshe, bayan kwana 44, an tilasta Janar Motors ta amince da haƙƙin ma'aikata na yin ƙungiya kuma ta sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar ciniki ta farko tare da sabuwar UAW.

Yunkurin zama na Flint ya zama sananne da Lexington da Valley Forge na ƙungiyar masana'antu ta Amurka. Roy ya tuna, "Lokacin da yara maza suka fito daga shuke-shuke, ban taɓa ganin irin wannan dare ba kuma watakila ba zan sake ganinsa ba. Na kwatanta shi da ƙasar da ke fuskantar 'yancin kai, iyalai sun sake haɗuwa a karo na farko tun lokacin da yajin aikin ya fara, yara suna rataye a kan uba tare da hawaye na farin ciki da farin ciki. Tekun bil'adama ne wanda tsoro ba ya kasance a cikin zukatan ma'aikata.

A cikin 1950, Reuther ya tattauna kuma ya sanya hannu tare da Charlie Wilson, babban jami'in zartarwa na Janar Motors, Yarjejeniyar Detroit, kwangilar aiki ta tarihi ta shekaru biyar wacce, don musayar sadaukar da ba za ta yi yajin aiki ba, ta ba ma'aikatan matsayi da fayil mafi kyawun albashi, kiwon lafiya, da fensho. A lokacin, Fortune Magazine ya rubuta cewa Yarjejeniyar Detroit "ta sanya ma'aikaci zuwa wani mataki mai ban mamaki memba na aji na tsakiya na al'umma ta tsakiya".

Chrysler

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Chrysler ya kasance na gaba a cikin jerin matasa UAW. A watan Maris na shekara ta 1937, ma'aikatan Chrysler 60,000 sun shiga yajin aiki. Lokacin da 'yan sanda suka fara tayar da zanga-zangar da masu yajin aiki, sama da' yan ƙasa 150,000 sun taru a filin Cadillac na Detroit inda Reuther da sauransu suka jagoranci su don nuna rashin amincewa. Bayan yajin aiki na makonni huɗu, Chrysler ya bi jagorancin Janar Motors kuma ya tattauna yarjejeniyar ciniki ta farko tare da UAW.

Kamfanin Motar Ford

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Henry Ford ya bayyana cewa ba zai taba barin ma'aikatansa su shiga ƙungiyar kwadago ba. Babban mai aiwatar da shi shine Harry Bennett, wanda ya jagoranci Ma'aikatar Tsaro ta mutane 3,000 don Kamfanin Motar Ford, wanda aikinsa shine ya tsoratar, ya doke, da kuma korar duk wani ma'aikaci wanda ya nuna alamun goyon baya ga ƙungiyar kwadago. A cikin 1932, lokacin da ma'aikata suka fita daga babbar Ford River Rouge Complex don nuna rashin amincewa da saurin layin taron, 'yan bindigar Bennett sun kai musu hari; an harbe ma'aikata biyar da suka mutu kuma daruruwan suka ji rauni.

Yakin Overpass, Mayu 26, 1937, Walter Reuther na biyar daga hagu, Richard Frankensteen na shida daga hagu

Kusan wata daya bayan sanya hannu na Chrysler, Reuther ya sami izini daga Birnin Dearborn don ba da takardun shaida mai taken, "Unionism, ba Fordism" a kan dukiyar jama'a a Gate Four na babbar Ford River Rouge Complex. Yayin da shi da wasu shugabannin UAW guda uku suka hau matakala zuwa gadar, 'yan bindiga' na Bennett ne suka kai musu hari wadanda suka doke su sosai.

Reuther nan take ya kewaye akalla mutane goma sha biyu, ya buga ƙasa, ya kori kuma ya buge shi a kai da jiki, ya ɗauki ƙafa huɗu a layi daya da ƙasa sannan ya buga kankare akai-akai, sannan ya jefa shi kuma ya kori matakala uku. An ci gaba da yin amfani da shi yayin da maza huɗu ko biyar suka doke shi a ciki da waje daga motocin da aka ajiye, har sai motar mota ta zo tare da mata na ƙungiyar don ba da takardu kuma 'yan fashi sun juya hankalinsu don kai musu hari.

An kuma kai wa masu daukar hoto hari kuma an kwace kyamarorin su amma an jefa kyamarar daya cikin abin da ba a san ta ba kuma washegari, "Yaƙin Overpass," labarai ne na kasa.

Kashewar da masu shirya kungiyar suka dauka a cikin dogon Lokaci ya cutar da Henry Ford, yayin da jin dadin kasa ya juya masa baya. Mujallar Time ta buga hotunan tare da bayanin yadda 'yan fashi da aka biya Henry Ford suka doke maza da mata ba tare da tausayi ba. Ford ya rama wa mujallu Time, Life, da Fortune ta hanyar janye duk tallace-tallace.

Ya ɗauki ƙarin shekaru huɗu, amma a ƙarshe, a cikin 1941, Henry Ford ya sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyarsa ta farko tare da UAW. Ba da daɗewa ba, Henry Ford ya gaya wa Walter Reuther: "Yana ɗaya daga cikin abubuwan da Harry Bennett ya taɓa yi lokacin da ya sami UAW cikin wannan shuka. " Reuther ya yi tambaya, "Me kake nufi?" Ford ya amsa, "To, kana fada da Janar Motors da taron Wall Street. Yanzu kuna nan kuma mun ba ku shagon ƙungiyar kuma fiye da yadda kuka fita daga gare su. Wannan ya sanya ku a gefenmu, ba za mu iya fada da Janara Motors da Wall Street tare, eh?"

A cikin shekarun 1950, Reuther da Henry Ford II, Shugaba na Ford, sun ziyarci masana'antar injiniya ta zamani a Cleveland. Yayin da suke tafiya a kan shuka, Ford ya nuna alama ga masu yankewa, na'urori masu sarrafa kansu, yana cewa, "Walter, ta yaya za ku sami waɗannan robots su biya kuɗin ƙungiyar?" Ba tare da rasa bugawa ba, Reuther ya amsa da shahara: "Henry, ta yaya zaku sa su sayi motocinku?"

"Jirgin sama 500 a rana"

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A shekara ta 1940, a tsakiyar yakin duniya na biyu, Amurka tana samar da jiragen yaki don taimakawa abokan hulɗa a yakin da suka yi da hare-haren Hitler. Samarwar ta kasance mai jinkiri, bai isa ba, kuma tana barazana ga tsaron Allies. Amurka ta shirya gina sabbin masana'antun masana'antu musamman don samar da karin jiragen sama. Wannan shirin zai dauki shekaru biyu don fara samarwa. Abokan hulɗa ba su da wannan lokacin da za su iya ajiyewa. A mayar da martani, Reuther ya ba da shawarar "don canza dukkan ikon da ba a yi amfani da shi ba na masana'antar mota zuwa babbar sashin samar da jirgin sama guda daya da za ta iya fitar da jirage 500 a rana. " Bayan samun goyon bayan ma'aikata, ya sanar da jama'a "Tsarin Reuther: jirage 500 da rana, " jim kadan kafin Kirsimeti, 1940. Ya ce, a lokacin jawabin rediyo na kasa a ranar 28 ga Disamba, 1940:

A Landan an taru a cikin jirgin karkashin kasa suna addu'a don taimako daga Amurka. A Amurka muna taruwa a kan zane-zane suna addu'a cewa Hitler zai zama tilas don jinkirta wani hari "dukkanin" a kan Ingila har tsawon shekaru biyu har sai sabbin tsire-tsire sun fara fitar da injuna da jirgin sama. Mun yi imanin cewa ba tare da damuwa da jadawalin samar da jirgin sama na yanzu ba za mu iya kara musu ta hanyar fitar da jiragen sama 500 a rana na misali guda ɗaya ta hanyar amfani da ƙarfin mota mara amfani. . . . Yaƙe-yaƙe na Ingila, an ce, an ci su a filin wasa na Eton. Ana iya cin nasarar Amurka a kan layin taron Detroit. Ka ba Ingila jiragen sama kuma ba za a ba ta maza ba.[17]

Mako guda bayan karɓar shirin, a ranar 30 ga Disamba, 1940, Shugaba Roosevelt ya rubuta William S. Knudsen, shugaban Hukumar samar da Yakin, "Yana da kyau a ba da hankali sosai ga wannan shirin (Reuther). " Kwanaki uku bayan haka a ranar 2 ga Janairu, 1941, Reuther ya sadu da Shugaba Roosevelt a Fadar White House don tattauna yiwuwar aiwatar da shirinsa na Jiragen Sama 500 a Rana.

Reuther tare da Shugaba Dwight Eisenhower da sauran shugabannin ma'aikata a keɓewar ginin AFL-CIO, Yuni 4, 1956

Janar Motors, Ford, da Chrysler duk sun yi adawa da shirin Reuther saboda suna son gwamnati ta gina sabbin masana'antun jirgin sama da tankuna waɗanda za a iya sayar musu da su a farashin kyauta bayan yaƙin. Har ila yau, ba sa son cewa aiki yana da ƙarfin hali don sanya hanci a cikin samarwa, wanda suka ji shi ne yankin gudanarwa na musamman. Alfred P. Sloan, shugaban Janar Motors, ya yi ba'a da ra'ayin, yana mai cewa, "kimanin 10 zuwa 15% na injuna da kayan aiki a cikin masana'antar mota za a iya amfani da su don samar da kayan tsaro na musamman".

Bayan harin da aka kai a Pearl Harbor a ranar 7 ga Disamba, 1941, an aiwatar da yawancin shawarwarin Reuther. Tsire-tsire na motoci na Detroit sun samar da jiragen sama da tankuna a cikin taro kuma sun zama sanannun cibiyar Arsenal na Dimokuradiyya, wanda ya ba Allies babbar fa'ida don cin nasarar yakin. A shekara ta 1943, Shugaban Chrysler, K. T. Keller, ya ba da rahoton cewa kamfaninsa ya canza kashi 89% na kayan aikinsa na inji zuwa samar da lokacin yaƙi, wanda ya jagoranci mai wallafa Washington Post, Phil Graham, ya bayyana cewa Reuther yana da kashi 89% daidai. A ƙarshen yaƙin, mujallar Fortune ta rubuta: "Reuther yana da kyau a kan hanya. Idan aka kwatanta da masana'antu da yawa da suka zauna a baya kuma suka rungumi riba da hukumomin da ba su da manufa na Washington, jagoran ma'aikata mai jan kai ya nuna ruhun aiki na atomatik. " A shekara ta 1953, Shugaba Eisenhower ya rubuta a cikin wata wasika ga Reuther, "Lokacin da na ƙarshe na yi jawabi ga Yarjejeniyar CIO, na gode maka da kyakkyawan aikinka a Yaƙin Duniya na biyu na samar da jiragen ruwa da makamai da makamai. "[18]

Zababben shugaban UAW

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayan yakin ya ƙare a 1945, Reuther ya tabbatar da cewa zai zama wani nau'i daban na shugaban ma'aikata lokacin da ya jagoranci yajin aiki yana kalubalantar GM don kara albashin ma'aikata da kashi 30% ba tare da kara farashin sabbin motocinsu ba. An ƙuntata albashin ma'aikata a lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na II kuma Reuther ya nemi samun karin su amma ba a farashin karuwar hauhawar farashin ba. A tarihi, lokacin da ma'aikata suka sami karuwar albashi, kamfanin zai ba da kuɗin ga masu amfani da su. GM ta ki karuwar albashi kuma bayan yajin aiki na kwanaki 113, bangarorin sun zauna a kan karuwar kudi goma sha takwas da rabi a kowace awa. Jagorancin Reuther na haɗin gwiwa a cikin wannan yajin aikin ya jefa shi cikin matsayi na farko na ƙungiyar.    

Walter Reuther ganawa da Jawaharlal Nehru, Firayim Minista na Indiya, a watan Oktoba na shekara ta 1949

A ranar 27 ga Maris, 1946, Reuther ya lashe zaben kuma ya zama shugaban UAW a cikin tseren kusa, ya kayar da shugaban UAW mai ci R. J. Thomas da kuri'u 124 kawai, daga kusan 9,000 da aka jefa. Sabon shugaban UAW ya yi alkawarin hangen nesa game da "wani yunkuri na ma'aikata wanda falsafarsa ita ce ya yi yaƙi don jin daɗin jama'a gaba ɗaya". Ɗaya daga cikin ayyukansa na farko a matsayin shugaban kasa shine ya yi yaƙin shiga cikin Kungiyar Bowling ta Amurka, wacce a baya ta cire masu jefa baki. Ya kasance sabon irin jagora wanda ke kallon ƙungiyar ma'aikata a matsayin "kayan aiki don canjin zamantakewa". 

Albashi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kodayake shugabannin ƙananan ƙungiyoyi suna samun sau 3 ko 4 albashi, Reuther da gangan ya sa albashi ya kasance a ƙasa don ya kasance cikin hulɗa, kuma ya nuna hadin kai, tare da membobin UAW da ya wakilta. Bai taba samun albashi na shekara-shekara fiye da $ 31,000. Marubucin David Halberstam ya rubuta cewa: "Rayinsa ba game da abubuwa masu mahimmanci ba ne. Nasarar da ƙungiyar ta samu ta isa. "

Kashe 'yan Kwaminisanci daga aikin da aka tsara

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Eleanor Roosevelt, Walter Reuther, Milton Eisenhower da tawagar musayar fursunoni ta Cuban a Washington, DC

Watanni 18 masu zuwa bayan nasarar zaben Reuther, yaƙe-yaƙe masu tsanani sun ɓarke a cikin UAW yayin da magoya bayan Kwaminisanci na R. J. Thomas ke da kashi biyu bisa uku a Kwamitin Zartarwa na UAW. Wani mai lura ya lura, "Commies sun jefa komai sai dai guduma da sikelin su a Walter. " A watan Nuwamba na shekara ta 1947, a taron kasa na UAW na gaba, a wannan lokacin Reuther ya lashe zaben da yawa, ya raunana ikon Kwaminisanci a kan jagorancin kungiyar. Mujallar Life ta ruwaito cewa nasarar Reuther ita ce "mafi girman koma baya a kowane lokaci ga Kwaminisanci a cikin Ƙungiyar Ma'aikata ta Amurka".

Shugaban Majalisa na Kungiyoyin Masana'antu (CIO)

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Reuther ya zama shugaban CIO a 1952 har zuwa hadewarsa da AFL a 1955, kuma ya ci gaba a matsayin shugaban UAW har zuwa mutuwarsa a 1970. A matsayinsa na shugaban CIO, Reuther ya nemi cire jami'ai daga kungiyoyin kwaminisanci da ke cikin CIO, wanda ya jagoranci Hubert Humphrey ya rubuta, "Kwamisanci na CIO barazana ce kai tsaye ga rayuwar dukkan cibiyoyin dimokuradiyya na kasarmu. Nasarar CIO a kan jam'iyyar Kwaminisanci babbar nasara ce ga al'ummarmu. " A mayar da martani, Trud, jaridar Soviet, ta kira Reuther "mai cin amana da mai yajin aiki" kuma wanda aka fi so na Kamfanin Kasuwancin Amurka. Jam'iyyar Republican ta kira Reuther "mutumin da ya fi haɗari a Amurka kuma Kwaminisanci. " Duk da cire Kwaminisancin daga ƙungiyar ma'aikata, J. Edgar Hoover, Darakta na Ofishin Bincike na Tarayya, bai taɓa daina zargin Reuther ya zama Kwaminisanta don aiki a Rasha kuma yana da haɗin kai na farko tare da Kwaminisances ba.

A shekara ta 1959, bisa ga bukatar Ma'aikatar Harkokin Waje, Reuther ya sadu da Firayim Ministan Soviet Nikita Khrushchev, wanda ke ziyartar Amurka. Sun tattauna, a tsakanin sauran abubuwa, jari-hujja da kwaminisanci, aiki mai tsari, da alaƙar Amurka da Rasha. Taron ya faru ne a San Francisco kuma ya kasance labarai na kasa da kasa.

Tattaunawa ta hadin gwiwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Walter Reuther tare da Shugaba Truman a cikin Ofishin Oval, 1952

A matsayinsa na shugaban UAW, Reuther ya tattauna kwangila wanda ya haɗa da karuwar ma'aikatan mota. Irin wannan karuwar sun hada da hauhawar shekara-shekara bisa ga ci gaban yawan aiki, karuwar farashin rayuwa, ƙarin fa'idodin rashin aikin yi, zaɓuɓɓukan ritaya da wuri, da fa'idodin kiwon lafiya da jin daɗi.

Ya yi amfani da dabarar da ake kira "tsarin sasantawa" a kan manyan masana'antun motoci guda uku, Janar Motar, Ford Motor Company, da Chrysler. Zai fara yin niyya ga kamfani wanda ya fi dacewa ya yarda da manufarsa ta ciniki. Idan wannan kamfani da aka yi niyya ya ki bayar da izini, Reuther zai yi barazanar yajin aiki don dakatar da samarwa a shuke-shuke kawai yayin da yake ba da damar ayyukan samarwa a masana'antun masu fafatawa su tafi ba tare da katsewa ba. A sakamakon haka, kamfanin da aka yi niyya zai yarda da bukatun Reuther don hana masu fafatawa daga shan tallace-tallace da rabon kasuwa. Da zarar ya sami yarjejeniyar farko, zai yi amfani da shi azaman tsari a kan sauran kamfanonin motoci, yana barazanar yajin aiki idan su ma ba su dace da irin sharuddan da kamfanin da aka yi niyya na farko ya amince da su ba. Reuther ya yi amfani da yarjejeniyar tsari don haɓaka gasa tsakanin masana'antun motoci, haɓaka tasirin ma'aikata, da rage yawan yajin aiki mai tsada.[19]

Ra'ayoyi, gwagwarmaya, da kuma matsayin siyasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin 1950, Reuther ya ba da shawarar, a cikin wata kasida mai taken, "A Proposal for a Total Peace Offensive", cewa Amurka ta kafa wata hukuma ta son rai ga matasa Amurkawa da za a aika a duniya don cika manufofin jin kai da ci gaba. Daga baya, a cikin shekarun 1950, Reuther ya ba da jawabai kamar haka:

Na daɗe ina cewa na yi imanin cewa matasa Amurkawa da aka horar da su don shiga tare da wasu matasa a duniya don a aika su zuwa kasashen waje tare da tsarin zane-zane, littafi, da kayan kiwon lafiya don taimakawa mutane su taimaka wa kansu da kayan aikin zaman lafiya, ƙananan matasa za su buƙaci a aika su da bindigogi da makamai na yaki.

A watan Agustan 1960, bayan Yarjejeniyar Kasa ta Democrat ta 1960, Walter Reuther ya ziyarci John F. Kennedy a fili na Kennedy a Hyannisport don tattauna dandalin Kennedy da ma'aikatan gwamnati ta gaba. A can ne Reuther ya sami Kennedy ya himmatu ga kirkirar hukumar zartarwa wacce za ta zama Peace Corps . [20] A karkashin jagorancin Reuther, United Auto Workers sun hada da dandalin manufofi wanda ya hada da "ƙungiyar zaman lafiya ta matasa" da za a aika wa kasashe masu tasowa. Daga baya, a kan shawarar Reuther, John F. Kennedy ya sanar da ra'ayin irin wannan kungiya a ranar 14 ga Oktoba, 1960, a wani jawabin kamfen na dare a Jami'ar Michigan. [21]

Yunkurin kare hakkin bil'adama

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Shugabannin kare hakkin bil'adama tare da Mataimakin Shugaban kasa Johnson da Babban Lauyan Robert Kennedy a Fadar White House a ranar 22 ga Yuni, 1963
Shugabannin Maris a Washington suna tsaye a gaban mutum-mutumi na Ibrahim Lincoln a ranar 28 ga Agusta, 1963
Shugabannin Maris a Washington a ranar 28 ga Agusta, 1963

Reuther ya kasance mai goyon baya sosai ga Ƙungiyar 'Yancin Bil'adama. Ya yi tafiya tare da Martin Luther King, Jr.Selma to Montgomery marches|MontgomSelma, Birmingham, Montgomery, da Jackson kuma lokacin da aka daure Sarki da sauransu a Birmingham, Alabama, kuma Sarki ya rubuta sanannen wasikar daga Birmingham Jail, Reuther ya shirya $ 160,000 don sakin masu zanga-zangar.[22][23][24] Ya kuma taimaka wajen shirya da kuma tallafawa Maris a Washington a ranar 28 ga watan Agusta, 1963, yana ba da maganganu daga matakai na Lincoln Memorial jim kadan kafin Sarki ya ba da jawabinsa na tarihi "Ina da Mafarki".[25] Ya yi aiki a cikin kwamitin daraktoci na Ƙungiyar Ƙasa don Ci gaban Mutanen Launi (NAACP). [26] A karkashin jagorancinsa, UAW ta ba da gudummawar $ 75,000 a 1954 don taimakawa wajen tabbatar da kokarin NAACP - karkashin jagorancin Thurgood Marshall - a gaban Kotun Koli a cikin shari'ar Brown v. Hukumar Ilimi. A cewar Sarki, Reuther ya aika da wasiƙu ga dukkan ƙungiyoyinsa na cikin gida a shekara ta 1957, yana neman membobin su halarci su ba da tallafin kuɗi ga Addu'ar Pilgrimage for Freedom a Washington, DC. A ranar cika shekaru 25 na UAW, Sarki ya rubuta wasika ga Reuther, yana taya shi murna game da nasarorin da ya samu kuma yana lura da cewa:

Fiye da kowa a Amurka, ka fito ne a matsayin alama mai haske na ƙungiyar kwadago ta dimokuradiyya. Ta hanyar gwaji, ƙoƙari da sadaukarwar da kake yi wa ayyukan jin kai, ka sanya rayuwa ta zama mafi ma'ana ga miliyoyin masu aiki. Ta hanyar lokutan wahala da cikas masu ƙarfi, kun tsaya tsayin daka ga abin da kuka yi imani da shi, kun san cewa a cikin dogon lokaci 'Gaskiya da aka murkushe zuwa ƙasa za ta sake tashi.' Kamar yadda na ji ku ka ce, ainihin ma'auni na mutum shine inda yake tsaye a lokutan ƙalubale da jayayya, lokacin da kawai ta'aziyya da yake samu ita ce muryar muryar murya ta ciki tana cewa akwai abubuwa da gaske kuma suna da muhimmanci cewa sun cancanci mutuwa, idan ya cancanta. Kun nuna a tsawon shekaru cewa zaka iya tsayawa a lokutan kalubale da jayayya. Wata rana duk Amurka za ta yi alfahari da nasarorin da kuka samu, kuma za ta yi rikodin aikinku a matsayin daya daga cikin abubuwan da suka fi dacewa da al'adunmu.

A farkon shekarun 1930, Reuther ya fara kalubalantar wariyar launin fata a matsayin dalibi a yanzu Jami'ar Jihar Wayne. Lokacin da otal ɗin yankin, wanda ya amince da kwalejin don barin ɗalibai su yi amfani da tafkin wanka, ya ki barin baƙi su yi iyo, sai ya shirya layin zanga-zanga. zanga-zangar ta kewaye toshewar. A sakamakon haka, otal ɗin ya rufe tafkinsa ga dukan ɗalibai. A wata hira da aka yi da The New York Times a shekarar 2013, Shugaba Barack Obama ya ce,

"Lokacin da kuka yi tunani game da hadin gwiwar da ta kawo game da 'yancin bil'adama, ba kawai mutanen da suka yi imani da daidaiton launin fata ba ne; mutane ne da suka yi imanin ma'aikata da ke da kyakkyawar harbi. Walter Reuther da UAW ne ke zuwa nan saboda sun fahimci cewa idan akwai wasu ma'aikata waɗanda ba sa samun yarjejeniya mai kyau to a ƙarshe hakan zai rage ikon su na samun yarjejeniya ta dace. "[27]

Tafiya zuwa 'Yanci, 1963

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

The Walk to Freedom wani taro ne a lokacin Yunkurin Kare Hakkin Bil'adama a ranar 23 ga Yuni, 1963, a Detroit, Michigan . Manufar zanga-zangar ita ce ta nuna rashin amincewa da wariyar launin fata, rarrabewa, da kuma zalunci da aka yi wa masu fafutukar kare hakkin bil'adama a Kudu da kuma nuna bambanci da ke fuskantar 'yan Afirka na Arewa kamar rashin daidaito a cikin daukar ma'aikata, albashi, ilimi, da gidaje.[28] A wasu hanyoyi, an dauke shi a matsayin motsa jiki na tufafi don Maris a Washington don Ayyuka da 'Yanci, wanda aka shirya don watanni biyu bayan haka. Kimanin mutane 125,000 ne suka halarci kuma ita ce mafi girman zanga-zangar kare hakkin bil'adama a tarihin kasar har zuwa wannan ranar. Reuther ya tara goyon baya ga zanga-zangar kuma ya ba da gudummawar ofishin a hedkwatar UAW ta Solidarity House ga Martin Luther King Jr. don shirya taron.[29] Tare da wasu, ciki har da Sarki, Reuther ya yi tafiya a kan Woodward Avenue kuma ya ba da jawabai daga baya a Cobo Hall. A can ne Sarki ya gabatar da jawabinsa na farko na "Ina da Mafarki,", bayan ya rubuta shi, aƙalla a wani ɓangare, a cikin ofishinsa a Solidarity House . [30][31]  

Maris a kan Washington, 1963

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Shirin hukuma na Maris a Washington don Ayyuka da 'Yanci

An gudanar da Maris a kan Washington don Ayyuka da 'Yanci a Washington, DC, a ranar Laraba, 28 ga Agusta, 1963. Wannan zanga-zangar ta nemi bayar da shawarwari ga 'yancin farar hula da na tattalin arziki na' 'Yan Afirka na Afirka. Tare da manyan shida da shugabannin addinai uku, Mathew Ahmann, Eugene Carson Blake, da Rabbi Joachim Prinz, Reuther sun taimaka wajen shirya tafiyar.[32] Da farko, an shirya tafiya don faruwa a waje da Ginin Capitol. Reuther, duk da haka, ya shawo kan sauran masu shirya don matsawa tafiya zuwa Lincoln Memorial. Ya yi imanin cewa Lincoln Memorial ba zai zama barazana ga Majalisa ba kuma wannan taron zai fi dacewa a ƙarƙashin kallon mutum-mutumi na Ibrahim Lincoln. Kwamitin, musamman Bayard Rustin, ya amince da motsa shafin a kan yanayin cewa Reuther ya biya tsarin sauti na $ 19,000 don kowa da kowa a National Mall ya iya jin masu magana da mawaƙa. Reuther da UAW sun ba da kuɗin jigilar bas ga 5,000 daga cikin membobinta na matsayi da fayil, suna ba da mafi girman rukuni ɗaya daga kowane ƙungiya. UAW ta kuma biya kuma ta kawo dubban alamu don masu zanga-zangar su ɗauka. Daga cikin sauran abubuwa, alamun sun karanta: "Babu Gidan Halfway a kan Hanyar zuwa 'Yanci", "Hadin Gida da Ayyuka Yanzu", "UAW Yana tallafawa Freedom March", "A cikin 'Yanci an haife mu, a cikin 'Yantar dole ne mu rayu", da kuma "Kafin mu zama Bawa, za a binne mu a Kabarinmu".[33][34]

Reuther shine shahararren mai shirya fararen fata da aka shirya don yin magana. A cikin maganganunsa, a kan matakai na Lincoln Memorial, ya bukaci Amurkawa da su matsawa 'yan siyasa suyi aiki don magance rashin adalci na launin fata. Ya ce:

Demokradiyyar Amurka tana fuskantar shari'a a idanun duniya... Ba za mu iya yin wa'azin dimokiradiyya a duniya ba sai dai idan muka fara yin dimokiradiya a gida. Dimokuradiyya ta Amurka ba za ta sami takardun shaida na ɗabi'a ba kuma ba za ta cancanci jagorantar dakarun 'yanci a kan dakarun zalunci ba sai dai idan muka dauki matakai masu ƙarfin zuciya, masu tabbatarwa, isasshen matakai don rufe gibin ɗabi'ar tsakanin alkawuran dimokuradiyya na Amurka da mummunar ayyukanta a fagen haƙƙin jama'a.

A cewar Irving Bluestone, wanda ke tsaye kusa da dandalin yayin da Reuther ya gabatar da jawabinsa, ya ji mata baƙi biyu suna magana. Ɗaya ya tambaye shi, "Wane ne wannan fararen mutumin?" Sauran ya amsa, "Ba ku san shi ba? Wannan shine fararen Martin Luther King.[35]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "On the Union Front: Look at Walter Reuther gives insight into the evolution and decline of American labor and liberalism: The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter Reuther and the Fate of American Labor, By Nelson Lichtenstein (Basic Books: $35; 592 pp.)". Los Angeles Times (in Turanci). December 17, 1995. Retrieved June 9, 2020.
  2. ↑ "Nonviolence". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved June 1, 2020.
  3. ↑ "Reuther, Walter Philip". The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute (in Turanci). June 21, 2017. Retrieved June 11, 2021.
  4. ↑ "Walter P. Reuther". reuther100.wayne.edu. Retrieved February 25, 2018.
  5. ↑ "Walter Reuther". aflcio.org (in Turanci). Retrieved March 1, 2018.
  6. ↑ Roberts, Sam (September 25, 2019). "Robert Boyd, Journalist Whose Reporting Shifted an Election, Dies at 91". The New York Times. Retrieved November 5, 2019.
  7. ↑ "The Stanford Daily 7 April 1964 — The Stanford Daily". stanforddailyarchive.com. Retrieved March 8, 2018.
  8. ↑ "Social Security History". www.ssa.gov (in Turanci). Retrieved March 8, 2018.
  9. ↑ name="www.uawregion8.net">"Region 8". www.uawregion8.net. Retrieved March 1, 2018.
  10. ↑ name="kinginstitute.stanford.edu-2017">"Reuther, Walter Philip". kinginstitute.stanford.edu. June 21, 2017. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
  11. ↑ name="reuther.wayne.edu">"Walter P. Reuther Library (225427) Civil Rights, Demonstrations, "Meredith March Against Fear," Mississippi, 1966". reuther.wayne.edu (in Turanci). Retrieved March 1, 2018.
  12. ↑ name="kinginstitute.stanford.edu-2017"
  13. ↑ name="NAACP letterhead from November 24">"NAACP letterhead from November 24,1964, listing board members" (PDF). Retrieved February 25, 2018.
  14. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Halberstam 1986 339
  15. ↑ Devinatz, Victor (2002). "Reassessing The Historical UAW: Walter Reuther's Affiliation with the Communist Party and Something of Its Meaning — A Document of Party Involvement, 1939". Labour / Le Travail. 49: 225–226.
  16. ↑ Glaberman, Martin (1 November 1999). "Walter Reuther, "Socialist Unionist"". Monthly Review. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  17. ↑ Reuther, Walter. "More Airplanes for Defense" (PDF). Walter P. Reuther Library. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
  18. ↑ "Letter to Walter P. Reuther Extending Greetings to the 15th Constitutional Convention of the Congress of Industrial Organizations. | The American Presidency Project". www.presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Alfred. 2009 149
  20. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Carew 1993 101
  21. ↑ "The Founding Moment". www.peacecorps.gov (in Turanci). Retrieved May 13, 2020.
  22. ↑ name="www.uawregion8.net">"Region 8". www.uawregion8.net. Retrieved March 1, 2018.
  23. ↑ name="kinginstitute.stanford.edu-2017">"Reuther, Walter Philip". kinginstitute.stanford.edu. June 21, 2017. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
  24. ↑ name="reuther.wayne.edu">"Walter P. Reuther Library (225427) Civil Rights, Demonstrations, "Meredith March Against Fear," Mississippi, 1966". reuther.wayne.edu (in Turanci). Retrieved March 1, 2018.
  25. ↑ name="kinginstitute.stanford.edu-2017"
  26. ↑ "NAACP letterhead from November 24,1964, listing board members" (PDF). Retrieved February 25, 2018.
  27. ↑ "Interview with President Obama". The New York Times. July 27, 2013. Retrieved October 22, 2019.
  28. ↑ "Walter P. Reuther Library". reuther.wayne.edu (in Turanci). Retrieved March 18, 2018.
  29. ↑ "Region 8". www.uawregion8.net. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
  30. ↑ "50th Anniversary Freedom Walk Detroit Press Conference". Detroit NAACP. June 10, 2013. Archived from the original on March 20, 2018. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
  31. ↑ Rummel, John (June 11, 2013). "Detroit remembers 50 years after King's "I Have a Dream" speech". Peoples World. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
  32. ↑ "Reuther, Walter Philip (1907–1970)". kingencyclopedia.stanford.edu. Retrieved February 25, 2018.
  33. ↑ "March on Washington". National Museum of American History (in Turanci). December 17, 2012. Archived from the original on March 31, 2018. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
  34. ↑ Jones, William. "The Move to Unity, labor's role in the March on Washington" (PDF). Retrieved March 21, 2018.
  35. ↑ Jones, William (Fall 2013). "The Move to Unity, Labor's Role in the March on Washington" (PDF). American Educator: 35.
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