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Yaduwar Bantu

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Yaduwar Bantu
mass migration (en) Fassara da language geography (en) Fassara
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 25°53′S 23°06′E / 25.88°S 23.1°E / -25.88; 23.1
Chronological overview after Nurse and Philippson (2003):

1 = 4,000–3,500 BP: origin

2 = 3,500 BP: initial expansion

"early split": 2.a = Eastern,    2.b = Western[1]

3 = 2,000–1,500 BP: Urewe nucleus of Eastern Bantu

4–7: southward advance

9 = 2,500 BP: Congo nucleus

10 = 2,000–1,000 BP: last phase
Taswirar da ke nuna yaduwar farkon zamanin ƙarfe a duk faɗin Afirka; duk lambobin kwanakin AD ne sai dai kwanan wata "250 BC".

Yaduwar Bantu [2] ya kasance babban jerin ƙaura na asalin rukuni Proto-Bantu, [3] wanda ya bazu daga asalin asalin asalin Afirka ta Yamma a fadin Afirka ta Tsakiya, Gabashin Afirka, da Kudancin Afirka.[4][2][5][6] cikin tsari, mazauna masu magana da Proto-Bantu sun ƙaura, sun maye gurbin, ko kuma sun shawo kan ƙungiyoyin mafarauta da makiyaya da suka haɗu da su.

Akwai shaidar harshe game da wannan fadada - yawancin harsunan da ake magana a duk faɗin Afirka ta kusa da Equatorial suna da kama da juna, suna ba da shawarar asalin al'adun gargajiya na asali na masu magana da su. Babban harshe na harsunan Bantu, wanda ya zama reshe na dangin yaren Atlantic-Congo, yana cikin yankunan kudancin Kamaru.[7] Shaidar kwayar halitta ta kuma nuna cewa akwai babban ƙaura na ɗan adam daga tsakiyar Afirka, tare da matakai daban-daban na haɗuwa da yawan jama'a.[2][8]

An yi imanin fadadawar ta faru ne a kalla a cikin raƙuman ruwa guda biyu, tsakanin kimanin shekaru 4,000 da 2,000 da suka gabata (kimanin 2,000 KZ zuwa 1 AZ). Binciken harshe ya nuna cewa fadada ta ci gaba a hanyoyi biyu: na farko ya ratsa ko tare da iyakar Arewacin yankin gandun daji na Kongo (zuwa Gabashin Afirka), kuma na biyu - kuma mai yiwuwa wasu - sun tafi kudu tare da gabar tekun Atlantika na Afirka zuwa abin da ke yanzu Jamhuriyar Kongo, Gabon, Kamaru, Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo, da Angola, ko kuma cikin gida tare da koguna da yawa da ke gudana daga kudu zuwa arewacin Kogin Kongo. Yaduwar ta kai Afirka ta Kudu, mai yiwuwa tun farkon 300 AZ [9] [10] [11][12][13][14][15]

Ka'idoji game da fadada

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bantuists sun yi imanin cewa fadada Bantu mai yiwuwa ya fara ne a tsaunuka tsakanin Kamaru da Najeriya.[16] Yankin Mambilla mai girman kilomita 60,000 da ke kan iyaka a nan an gano shi yana dauke da ragowar "Bantu da suka zauna a gida" yayin da yawancin masu magana da Bantu suka ƙaura daga yankin. Shaidar archaeological daga ayyukan daban-daban na Jean Hurault (1979, 1986 da 1988) da Rigobert Tueché (2000) a yankin ya nuna ci gaba da al'adu daga 3000 KZ har zuwa yau.[17] Yawancin kungiyoyin tsaunuka na Bamenda (wanda aka mamaye shekaru 2000 har zuwa yau), dan kadan a kudu kuma yana kusa da yankin Mambilla, suna da tsohuwar tarihin zuriya daga arewa zuwa yankin Mambella.

Da farko, masu binciken tarihi sun yi imanin cewa za su iya samun kamanceceniyar archaeological a cikin al'adun tsohuwar yankin da aka ɗauka cewa masu magana da Bantu sun ratsa. Masana ilimin harsuna, suna rarraba harsuna da ƙirƙirar teburin asali na dangantaka, sun yi imanin cewa za su iya sake gina abubuwan al'adu. Sun yi imanin cewa fadada ta samo asali ne daga ci gaban noma, yin yumbu, da kuma amfani da baƙin ƙarfe, wanda ya ba da izinin amfani da sabbin yankuna na muhalli. A cikin 1966, Roland Oliver ya buga wata kasida da ke gabatar da waɗannan alaƙa a matsayin ra'ayi mai ma'ana.

Abubuwan da suka dace da su a cikin mutanen da ke magana da Bantu [18]

Yaduwar Bantu da aka yi la'akari da ita ta fitar da ita ko kuma ta karɓi mafarauci-mai cin abinci proto-Khoisan, wanda a baya ya zauna a Kudancin Afirka. A Gabas da Kudancin Afirka, masu magana da Bantu na iya karɓar kiwon dabbobi daga wasu mutanen da ba su da alaƙa da Cushitic-da Nilotic da suka haɗu. Ayyukan kiwo sun kai kudu da yawa ƙarni da yawa kafin baƙi masu magana da Bantu suka yi. Shaidar Archaeological, harshe, kwayar halitta, da muhalli duk suna goyon bayan ƙaddamar da cewa fadada Bantu ya kasance ƙaura mai mahimmanci na ɗan adam. Gabaɗaya, ƙungiyoyin mutanen da ke magana da yaren Bantu daga yankin iyakar Kamaru / Najeriya a ko'ina cikin yawancin Afirka ta kudu da Sahara sun sake fasalin tsarin kwayar halitta na nahiyar kuma sun haifar da haɗuwa mai yawa tsakanin baƙi da mutanen yankin.[8] Binciken kwayar halitta na 2023 na masu magana da Bantu 1,487 da aka samo daga mutane 143 a fadin kasashe 14 na Afirka ya nuna cewa fadada ta faru ~ shekaru 4,000 da suka gabata a Yammacin Afirka. Sakamakon ya nuna cewa masu magana da Bantu sun sami ƙwayoyin halitta masu mahimmanci daga kungiyoyin gida a yankunan da suka fadada.[2]

Dangane da shaidar hakora, Irish (2016) ya kammala cewa kakanninmu na Afirka ta Yamma da mutanen Proto-Bantu na iya samo asali ne a yankin yammacin Sahara, a tsakiyar lokacin Kiffian a Gobero, kuma suna iya ƙaura zuwa kudu, daga Sahara zuwa sassa daban-daban na Afirka ta Kudu (misali, Benin, Kamaru, Ghana, Najeriya, Togo), sakamakon hamada na Green Sahara a cikin 7000 KZ. Daga Najeriya da Kamaru, mutanen Proto-Bantu na noma sun fara ƙaura, kuma a cikin ƙaura, sun rabu zuwa mutanen Bantu na Gabas (misali, Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo) da mutanen Bantu na Yamma (misali., Kongo, Gabon) tsakanin 2500 KZ da 1200 KZ.[19] Ya ba da shawarar cewa Mutanen Igbo da Mutanen Yoruba na iya samun cakuda daga mutanen Bantu da suka yi ƙaura.[19]

Yawan jama'a kafin fadadawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kafin faɗaɗa manoman Bantu, da alama masu kiwon Pygmies Kongo sun kasance suna zaune a Tsakiyar Tsakiya, Kudu da Kudu maso Gabashin Afirka, [[ harsunan Khoisan - masu farautar masu farauta, harsunan Nilo-Saharan - makiyaya masu magana, da kuma makiyayan Cushitic.

Tsakiyar Afrika

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ana tunanin cewa Pygmies na Afirka ta Tsakiya da Bantus sun samo asali ne daga yawan kakanni guda shekaru 70,000 da suka gabata.[20] Ƙungiyoyin mutanen Batwa da yawa suna magana da harsunan Bantu; duk da haka, babban ɓangaren ƙamus ɗinsu ba asalin Bantu bane. Mafi yawan wannan ƙamus na botanical ne, yana magana ne game da tattara zuma, ko kuma an ƙware shi don gandun daji kuma ana rabawa tsakanin ƙungiyoyin Batwa na yamma. An ba da shawarar cewa wannan shi ne ragowar harshen Batwa na yamma mai zaman kansa (harshen Mbenga ko "Baaka").[21]

Kudu Maso Gabashin Afrika

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kafin zuwan Bantus a kudu maso gabashin Afirka, al'ummomin Cushitic -masu magana sun yi ƙaura zuwa yankin daga Habashida Highlands da sauran yankunan arewa. Taguwar ruwa ta farko ta ƙunshi masu magana da harshen Kushitic na Kudu, waɗanda suka zauna a kusa da [Lake Turkana] da wasu sassan Tanzaniya tun kimanin shekaru 5,000 da suka gabata. Shekaru da yawa bayan haka, kusan 1000 CE, wasu masu magana da harshen Kushitic na Gabas suma sun zauna a arewa da bakin teku Kenya.[22]

Harshen Khoisan - masu magana da mafarauta suma sun zauna a Afirka ta Kudu maso Gabas kafin fadada Bantu..[23]

Nilo-Saharan-masu magana yawan makiyayan sun ƙunshi rukuni na uku na mazauna yankin kafin Bantu.[24][25][26]

Afirka ta Kudu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kafin fadada Bantu, Harshen Khoisan al'ummomi sun zauna a Kudancin Afirka. Zuriyarsu sun yi cuɗanya da wasu al’ummai kuma sun ɗauki wasu harsuna. Wasu kaɗan har yanzu suna rayuwa ta hanyar kiwo, galibi ana samun su ta hanyar yin aiki ga maƙwabtan manoma a yankunan da ke kusa da hamada Kalahari, yayin da yawancin [[[Nama | Nama]] ke ci gaba da rayuwa ta al'ada ta hanyar kiwon dabbobi a Namibiya da kusa da Afirka ta Kudu.

Tarihi da Ci gaba

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masu Magana da Proto-Bantu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tukwane mafi tsoho da aka samo a wani yanki da mutanen da ke magana da Bantu ke zaune (Shum Laka a arewacin Kamaru) yana da tarihin kimanin shekara ta 5000 KZ. Masu magana da Proto-Bantu sun zauna a ƙauyuka inda suke noma man kwakwa, gyada, hatsi da kuma watakila doya. Suna amfani da kayan aikin dutse, suna kiwon awaki da fararen kaza, kuma suna gina jiragen ruwa don kamun kifi.[27](p24)

Yaɗuwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Duk da bincike mai zurfi, ba a daidaita ba game da musabbabin yaɗuwar mutanen Bantu da kuma hanyoyin da suka bi,[lower-alpha 1] hakan ya sa wasu masana suka yi imanin cewa yaɗuwar ta faru ne da bazata. Duk da haka, akwai ra'ayin gama gari cewa akwai lokuta da dama da aka tashi zuwa wurare daban-daban.[27](p23)

Kimanin 5000 KZ zuwa kimanin 500 AZ

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ana ganin cewa yaɗuwar mutanen da ke magana da harshen Bantu daga asalin yankinsu a Yammacin Afirka ya fara kusan shekara ta 4000–3500 KZ. Ba a san ko farkon wannan yaɗuwar ya kasance hijira ɗaya ce ko ƙanana masu yawa da suka faru a lokuta daban-daban ba.[27](p23) Ko da yake wasu tsofaffin ra'ayoyi sun bayyana cewa mutanen farko masu amfani da Bantu suna da fasahar ƙarfe da noma, ba a samu shaidar kayan tarihi da ke nuna amfani da ƙarfe ba sai kusan shekara ta 400 KZ, duk da cewa suna noma.[28] Mutanen da ke magana da Bantu sun kasu zuwa ƙungiyoyi biyu masu faɗaɗa a hanyoyi daban-daban, wato "Gabar Yamma" da "Gabar Gabas".[27](pp23-24)

Gabar Yamma
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gidajen tarihi da ke kudu da Shum Laka (a kudu na Kamaru da Gabon) sun nuna cewa Gabar Yamma ta fara ne tsakanin 5000 da 3000 KZ.[27](p24) Farkon yaɗuwar ta kasance da jinkiri, inda aka kai tsakiyar Kamaru ne kusan 1500 KZ. Wannan jinkiri ya biyo bayan rashin kayan aikin ƙarfe da zai taimaka wajen sare dazuka cikin sauƙi. Gabar Yamma mai yiyuwa ta bi gabar teku da manyan koguna na tsarin Kongo zuwa kudu. Watakila sun yi amfani da teku don kai ƙarshen dajin. [27](p25) Ana ganin cewa raguwar dajin Afrika ta Tsakiya sakamakon sauyin yanayi tsakanin 2000 KZ da 500 KZ ya taimaka wajen yaɗuwar.[4] Sun kai tsakiyar Angola zuwa shekara ta 500 KZ.[29]

Gabar Gabas
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gabar Gabas, wanda ake ganin ta fara bayan Gabar Yamma, ta bazu zuwa gabas, watakila ta gefen arewa na dajin ko ta kogin Ubangi. Tukwanen Urewe ya nuna cewa sun isa yammacin tafkin Victoria zuwa shekara ta 500 KZ.[27](pp25-26) Wannan yanki na daga cikin tsoffin cibiyoyin narke ƙarfe a Afrika.[30][31] Zuwa ƙarni na farko KZ, al'ummomin da ke magana da Bantu a yankin Manyan Tafkuna sun haɓaka dabarar sarrafa ƙarfe har zuwa samar da ƙarfen carbon.[32]

Yaɗuwa daga yankin Manyan Tafkuna ya faru ne cikin ƙarin rukuni biyu. Daya ya tafi yamma ya haɗu da Gabar Yamma a Kongo da Angola, ɗayan kuma ya tafi kudu ya bazu a Gabashin da Kudancin Afirka.[27](p26) Kayan tarihi sun nuna cewa daga shekara ta 100 KZ zuwa 300 AZ, al’ummomin Bantu sun kasance a gabar ruwa na Misasa a Tanzaniya da Kwale a Kenya. Waɗannan al’umma sun haɗu kuma sun yi aure da al’ummomin da suka riga suke zaune a yankin. Daga shekara ta 300 AZ, ta hanyar shiga harkar ciniki ta teku da ta daɗe tana gudana, sun kafa alaƙa da ’yan kasuwa na Larabawa da Indiya, wanda hakan ya haifar da ci gaban al’adar Swahili.[33] Wasu kuma sun isa yankin KwaZulu-Natal a Afirka ta Kudu zuwa shekara ta 300 AZ ta hanyar gabar teku, da kuma yankin Limpopo zuwa shekara ta 500 AZ.[34][35][36]

Mu’amala Tsakanin Masu Bantu da Masunta da Masu Taruwa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Zanen dutse na San yana nuna jarumin da ke ɗauke da garkuwa. Duk da kasancewar mu’amala mai rikitarwa inda harsuna, al’adu, fasaha da halittun jiki suka haɗu,[37] al’adun baka sun nuna cewa korafi da rikici sukan janyo korar wasu.[27](p32)

A lokacin yaɗuwa, mutanen Bantu sun mu’amala da rukunin Pygmy daban-daban da masu magana da harsunan Khoisan (rukunin masunta da masu taruwa), da kuma masu harsunan Nilo-Saharan, Afro-Asiatic, da sauran na Niger-Congo (rukunin masu noma).[4] Ra’ayoyi na ƙarni na 20 sun ɗauka cewa alaƙar farko tsakanin masu Bantu da masunta masu taruwa ta kasance da tashin hankali, amma yanzu wannan ra’ayi ba a yarda da shi ba.[38] Bincike ya nuna akwai cikakken haɗin kai tsakanin al’adun Bantu da na masunta masu taruwa, inda aure tsakanin juna ya zama ruwan dare. Alaƙar ta kasance da rikitarwa yayin da harsuna, fasahohi, al’adu da kwayoyin halitta suka haɗu.

Suka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Manfred K. H. Eggert ya bayyana cewa "bayanan aikin haƙar ƙasa na yanzu a dajin damina na Afirka ta Tsakiya suna da rauni ƙwarai, kuma saboda haka ba su da ƙarfi da za su zama hujja ta shigowar masu magana da harsunan Bantu a hankali cikin dajin, balle a ce wani babban motsi ne." [39]

Seidensticker (2024) ya nuna cewa ra'ayin da ya fi karbuwa game da faɗaɗar Bantu yana da alaƙa ta dole tsakanin tukwane na Afirka ta Tsakiya da harsunan Afirka ta Tsakiya, inda ake ɗaukar wuraren da ake magana da harsunan Bantu daidai da inda aka samo ragowar tukwane; shahararren tsarin haɗa sabunta harshen da bayanan aikin haƙar ƙasa ya haifar da yaɗuwar kuskuren ra'ayi da kuma zagaye a tunani, inda ake ɗaukar ƙirƙirar tukwane mafi tsawo a wani yanki a matsayin shaida ta farkon zuwan masu magana da harsunan Bantu. [40] A cikin muhawarar da ke tsakanin masana harshe kan kalmar "Bantu", Seidensticker (2024) ya nuna cewa an samu "babban sauyi na fahimta inda wani kalma na fasaha kawai ba tare da wani alaƙa da al'adu ba, ya rikide zuwa wani suna da ke nufin harshe, al'ada, al'umma, da jinsi ba tare da bambanci ba." [40]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Patin, Etienne; et al. (5 May 2017). "Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America". Science. 356 (6337): 543–546. Bibcode:2017Sci...356..543P. doi:10.1126/science.aal1988. PMID 28473590. S2CID 3094410. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Fortes-Lima, Cesar A.; et al. (5 April 2023). "The genetic legacy of the expansion of Bantu-speaking peoples in Africa". Nature. 625 (7995): 540–547. Bibcode:2024Natur.625..540F. bioRxiv 10.1101/2023.04.03.535432. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06770-6. PMC 10794141 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38030719 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 258009425 Check |s2cid= value (help). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "legacy" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ Grollemund, Rebecca; Branford, Simon; Bostoen, Koen; Meade, Andrew; Venditti, Chris; Pagel, Mark (27 October 2015). "Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (43): 13296–13301. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11213296G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1503793112. PMC 4629331. PMID 26371302.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Bostoen, Koen (2018). "The Bantu Expansion". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.191. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4.
  5. ↑ Grollemund, Rebecca; Branford, Simon; Bostoen, Koen; Meade, Andrew; Venditti, Chris; Pagel, Mark (27 October 2015). "Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (43): 13296–13301. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11213296G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1503793112. PMC 4629331. PMID 26371302.
  6. ↑ Clark, John Desmond; Brandt, Steven A. (1984). From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa. University of California Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-520-04574-3.
  7. ↑ Berniell-Lee, Gemma; Calafell, Francesc; Bosch, Elena; et al. (2006). "Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 26 (7): 1581–9. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp069. PMID 19369595.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Bird, Nancy; et al. (2023). "Dense sampling of ethnic groups within African countries reveals fine-scale genetic structure and extensive historical admixture". Science Advances. 9 (13): eabq2616. Bibcode:2023SciA....9.2616B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abq2616. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 10058250 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36989356 Check |pmid= value (help). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "dense" defined multiple times with different content
  9. ↑ Vansina, J. (1995). "New Linguistic Evidence and 'The Bantu Expansion'". Journal of African History. 36 (2): 173–195. doi:10.1017/S0021853700034101. JSTOR 182309. S2CID 162117464.
  10. ↑ Tishkoff, S. A.; Reed, F. A.; Friedlaender, F. R.; et al. (2009). "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans". Science. 324 (5930): 1035–44. Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1035T. doi:10.1126/science.1172257. PMC 2947357. PMID 19407144.
  11. ↑ Plaza, S; Salas, A; Calafell, F; Corte-Real, F; Bertranpetit, J; Carracedo, A; Comas, D (2004). "Insights into the western Bantu dispersal: MtDNA lineage analysis in Angola". Human Genetics. 115 (5): 439–47. doi:10.1007/s00439-004-1164-0. PMID 15340834. S2CID 13213447.
  12. ↑ Coelho, M; Sequeira, F; Luiselli, D; Beleza, S; Rocha, J (2009). "On the edge of Bantu expansions: MtDNA, Y chromosome and lactase persistence genetic variation in southwestern Angola". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 9 (1): 80. Bibcode:2009BMCEE...9...80C. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-80. PMC 2682489. PMID 19383166. S2CID 7760419.
  13. ↑ De Filippo, C; Barbieri, C; Whitten, M; et al. (2011). "Y-chromosomal variation in sub-Saharan Africa: Insights into the history of Niger–Congo groups". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 28 (3): 1255–69. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq312. PMC 3561512. PMID 21109585.
  14. ↑ Alves, I; Coelho, M; Gignoux, C; et al. (2011). "Genetic homogeneity across Bantu-speaking groups from Mozambique and Angola challenges early split scenarios between East and West Bantu populations". Human Biology. 83 (1): 13–38. doi:10.3378/027.083.0102. PMID 21453002. S2CID 20841059.
  15. ↑ Castrì, L; Tofanelli, S; Garagnani, P; et al. (2009). "MtDNA variability in two Bantu-speaking populations (Shona and Hutu) from Eastern Africa: Implications for peopling and migration patterns in sub-Saharan Africa". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 140 (2): 302–11. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21070. PMID 19425093.
  16. ↑ Koile, Ezequiel; Greenhill, Simon J.; Blasi, Damián E.; Bouckaert, Remco; Gray, Russell D. (2022-08-09). "Phylogeographic analysis of the Bantu language expansion supports a rainforest route". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (in Turanci). 119 (32): e2112853119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11912853K. doi:10.1073/pnas.2112853119. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 9372543 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 35914165 Check |pmid= value (help).
  17. ↑ Zeitlyn, David; Connell, Bruce (2003). "Ethnogenesis and Fractal History on an African Frontier: Mambila-Njerep-Mandulu". The Journal of African History. 44 (1): 117–138. doi:10.1017/S002185370200823X. JSTOR 4100385.
  18. ↑ Bird, Nancy; et al. (2023). "Dense sampling of ethnic groups within African countries reveals fine-scale genetic structure and extensive historical admixture". Science Advances. 9 (13): eabq2616. Bibcode:2023SciA....9.2616B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abq2616. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 10058250 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36989356 Check |pmid= value (help).
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Irish
  20. ↑ Awad, Elias. "Common Origins of Pygmies and Bantus". CNRS International Magazine. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
  21. ↑ Bahuchet, Serge (1993). "History of the Inhabitants of the Central African Rain Forest: Perspectives from Comparative Linguistics". In Hladik, C.M. (ed.). Tropical Forests, People, and Food: Biocultural Interactions and Applications to Development. Paris: Unesco/Parthenon. pp. 37–54. ISBN 978-9-2310-2879-3.
  22. ↑ "Early migrations into East Africa | Enzi".
  23. ↑ Ambrose, Stanley H. (1986). "Hunter-gatherer adaptations to non-marginal environments: an ecological and archaeological assessment of the Dorobo model". Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika. 7 (2): 11–42.
  24. ↑ Ehret, Christopher (1980). The Historical Reconstruction of Southern Cushitic Phonology and Vocabulary. 5 of Kölner Beiträge zur Afrikanistik. Berlin: Reimer. p. 407.
  25. ↑ Ehret, Christopher (1983). Mack, John; Robertshaw, Peter (eds.). Culture History in the Southern Sudan. Nairobi, Kenya: British Institute in Eastern Africa. pp. 19–48. ISBN 978-1-872566-04-7.
  26. ↑ Ambrose, Stanley H. (1982). "Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstructions of History in East Africa". In Ehert, Christopher; Posnansky, Merrick (eds.). The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History. University of California Press. pp. 104–157. ISBN 978-0-5200-4593-4.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 27.8 Juwayeyi, Yusuf M. (2020). "The Bantu origins of the Chewa". Archaeology and Oral Tradition in Malawi: Origins and Early History of the Chewa. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84701-253-1.
  28. ↑ Vansina, Jan (1990). Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-2991-2573-8.[page needed]
  29. ↑ Ehret, C. (2001). "Bantu Expansions: Re-Envisioning a Central Problem of Early African History". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 34 (1): 5–41. doi:10.2307/3097285. JSTOR 3097285.
  30. ↑ Clist, Bernard-Olivier (1987). "A critical reappraisal of the chronological framework of the Early Iron Age Urewe Industry". MUNTU. 6: 35–62. hdl:1854/LU-3118804.
  31. ↑ Lane, Paul; Ashley, Ceri; Oteyo, Gilbert (January 2006). "New Dates for Kansyore and Urewe Wares from Northern Nyanza, Kenya". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 41 (1): 123–138. doi:10.1080/00672700609480438. S2CID 162233816.
  32. ↑ Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald H. (22 September 1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania: Recent discoveries show complex technological achievement in African iron production". Science. 201 (4361): 1085–1089. doi:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085. PMID 17830304. S2CID 37926350.
  33. ↑ Pouwels, Randall L.; Kusimba, Chapurukha M. (2000). "The Rise and Fall of Swahili States". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 33 (2): 437. doi:10.2307/220701. JSTOR 220701.
  34. ↑ Ehret, Christopher (1998). An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 BC to AD 400. London: James Currey. ISBN 978-0-8139-2057-3.[page needed]
  35. ↑ Newman, James L. (1995). The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07280-8.[page needed]
  36. ↑ Shillington, Kevin (2005). History of Africa (3rd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.[page needed]
  37. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :2
  38. ↑ Pakendorf, Brigitte; Gunnink, Hilde; Sands, Bonny; Bostoen, Koen (2017-01-01). "Prehistoric Bantu-Khoisan language contact: A cross-disciplinary approach". Language Dynamics and Change (in Turanci). 7 (1): 1–46. doi:10.1163/22105832-00701002. hdl:1854/LU-8519242. ISSN 2210-5832.
  39. ↑ Eggert, Manfred K. H. (2016). "Genetizing Bantu: Historical Insight or Historical Trilemma?". Medieval Worlds (4): 79–90. doi:10.1553/medievalworlds_no4_2016s79.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Seidensticker, Dirk (28 March 2024). "Pikunda-Munda and Batalimo-Maluba Archaeological Investigations of the Iron Age Settlement History of the Western and Northern Congo Basin". African Archaeological Review. 41 (2): 5–6. doi:10.1007/s10437-024-09576-7. ISSN 0263-0338. OCLC 10194943180 Check |oclc= value (help). S2CID 268802330 Check |s2cid= value (help).


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