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Yaduwar farko na hominins daga Afirka

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Nasarar warwatsawar    Homo erectus (rawaya),    Homo Neanderthalensis (ochre) da kuma    Homo sapiens (ja, Daga Afirka II ), tare da adadin shekarun da suka bayyana kafin yanzu .

Yawaitar da yawa na al'ummomi na mutanen archaic (genus Homo ) daga Afirka da kuma ko'ina cikin Eurasia sun faru a lokacin ƙananan Paleolithic, kuma zuwa farkon Paleolithic na tsakiya, tsakanin kimanin shekaru miliyan 2.1 da 0.2 da suka wuce (Ma). Wadannan fadadawa ana kiransu da sunan Out of Africa I, sabanin haɓakar ɗan adam na zamani na zamani ( Homo sapiens ) zuwa Eurasia, wanda wataƙila ya fara ba da daɗewa ba bayan shekaru miliyan 0.2 da suka gabata (wanda aka sani a cikin wannan mahallin " Daga Afirka II "). [1]

Farkon kasancewar Homo (ko kuma duk wani hominin ) a wajen Afirka ya kusan kusan shekaru miliyan 2 da suka gabata. Wani bincike na 2018 ya gano kasancewar hominin a Shangchen, tsakiyar kasar Sin, tun daga farkon 2.12 Ma bisa tushen magnetostratigraphic dating na mafi ƙasƙanci Layer dauke da kayan tarihi na dutse. [2] Shahararrun kwarangwal ɗin ɗan adam mafi dadewa a wajen Afirka sun fito ne daga Dmanisi, Jojiya ( Dmanisi skull 4 ), kuma an yi kwanan watan 1.8 Ma. Wadannan ragowar an rarraba su da Homo erectus georgicus .

Daga baya ana ba da shawarar fadada raƙuman ruwa a kusa da 1.4 Ma (masana'antu na farko na Acheulean ), waɗanda ke da alaƙa da Homo antecessor da 0.8 Ma (ƙungiyoyin Acheulean masu fashe ), hade da Homo heidelbergensis . [3]

Har zuwa farkon 1980s, an yi tunanin cewa mutanen farko an iyakance su zuwa nahiyar Afirka a farkon Pleistocene, ko kuma har zuwa kusan 0.8 Ma; Hijirar Hominin a wajen Gabashin Afirka ta kasance da wuya a farkon Pleistocene, yana barin tarihin abubuwan da suka faru. [4]

Watsewar farko

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Pre- Homo hominin fadada daga Afirka ana ba da shawarar ta kasancewar Graecopithecus da Ouranopithecus, wanda aka samu a Girka da Anatoliya kuma kwanan wata zuwa c. Shekaru miliyan 8 da suka gabata, amma waɗannan tabbas Homininae ne amma ba Hominini ba. Yiwuwa masu alaƙa su ne sawun Trachilos da aka samu a Crete, kwanan wata kusan shekaru miliyan 6 da suka wuce; [5] an sake ƙididdige shekarun sawun ya zama shekaru miliyan 6.05 da suka wuce, shekaru miliyan 0.35 fiye da kimantawa na baya. [6] Wani sake dubawa da Willem Jan Zachariasse da Lucas Lourens suka yi sun fassara sawun da aka ce ya samo asali ne shekaru miliyan 3 da suka gabata kuma suna shakkar ko sawun sawun ne ko kuma maharan sun yi sawun ne saboda yanayin ruwa mara zurfi da kuma rabuwa da Crete daga babban yankin Girka da Turkiyya a cikin Late Pliocene ta Basin Kudancin Aegean. [7]

Australopithecina ya bayyana kimanin shekaru miliyan 5.6 da suka wuce, a Gabashin Afirka ( Afar Depression ). Gracile australopithecines ( Australopithecus afarensis ) ya fito a cikin wannan yanki, kimanin shekaru miliyan 4 da suka wuce. An samo sanannun kayan aikin da aka sake gyarawa a Lomekwi, Kenya, kuma tun daga 3.3 Ma, a ƙarshen Pliocene . Suna iya zama samfurin Australopithecus garhi ko Paranthropus aethiopicus, sanannun hominins guda biyu na zamani tare da kayan aikin. [8] Ana kyautata zaton Genus Homo ya samo asali ne kimanin shekaru miliyan 2.8 da suka gabata, inda aka samu Homo habilis a tafkin Turkana, Kenya . Ƙayyadaddun jinsin "mutum" Homo, daga Australopithecus yana da ɗan jayayya, don haka ana amfani da kalmar "hominin" mafi girma don haɗa duka biyun. "Hominin" a zahiri ya haɗa da chimpanzees da nau'in ɗan adam da suka wuce shekaru miliyan 10 (rabuwar Homininae zuwa Hominini da Gorillini ).

Farkon kasancewar hominin a wajen Afirka ya kusan kusan shekaru miliyan 2 da suka gabata. Wani bincike na 2018 ya yi iƙirarin shaidar kasancewar ɗan adam a Shangchen, tsakiyar China, tun daga farkon 2.12 Ma dangane da ƙa'idar magnetostratigraphic na mafi ƙanƙanci mai ɗauke da kayan tarihi na dutse. [2]

An ba da shawarar cewa Homo floresiensis ya samo asali ne daga irin wannan haɓaka da wuri. Ba a fayyace ko ya kamata a yi la'akari da wadannan farkon hominins da suka bar Afirka Homo habilis, ko wani nau'in Homo na farko ko kuma marigayi Australopithecus mai alaka da Homo habilis, ko kuma wani nau'in Homo erectus na farko . A kowane hali, an gano yanayin halittar H. floresiensis ya nuna mafi girman kamance tare da Australopithecus sediba, Homo habilis da Dmanisi Man, yana haɓaka yiwuwar kakannin H. floresiensis sun bar Afirka kafin bayyanar H. erectus . [9] Wani bincike na phylogenetic da aka buga a cikin 2017 ya nuna cewa H. floresiensis ya fito ne daga nau'in jinsin (mai yiwuwa Australopithecine) kakanninsa zuwa Homo habilis, yana mai da shi "jinin 'yar'uwa" ko dai zuwa H. habilis ko kuma a ɗan ƙaramin habilis - erectus - ergaster - sapiens clade kanta fiye da H. layinsa ya girmi H. Dangane da wannan rarrabuwa, ana hasashen H. floresiensis don wakiltar ƙaura da ba a sani ba har zuwa yanzu kuma farkon ƙaura daga Afirka, tun kafin shekaru miliyan 2.1 da suka gabata. Ana ba da shawarar irin wannan ƙarshe ta ranar 2.1 Ma don tsoffin kayan tarihi na Shangchen . [2]

Homo erectus

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Taswirar rarraba Pleistocene ta Tsakiya ( Acheulean ) cleaver ya samo

Homo erectus yana fitowa ne bayan shekaru miliyan 2 da suka wuce. [10] Da farko H. erectus ya rayu fuska da fuska tare da H. habilis a Gabashin Afirka na kusan shekaru rabin miliyan. [11] Kasusuwan burbushin Homo erectus mafi dadewa sun bayyana kusan lokaci guda, jim kadan bayan shekaru miliyan biyu da suka gabata, duka a Afirka da Caucasus. Wurin farko na Eurasian H. erectus (idan burbushin ya kasance da gaske H. erectus - duba Dmanisi hominins ) shine Dmanisi a Jojiya, amintaccen kwanan wata 1.8 Ma. [12] Kwanyar da aka samu a Dmanisi shaida ce don kula da tsofaffi. Kwanyar kwanyar ta nuna cewa wannan Homo erectus ya tsufa kuma ya yi hasarar duka hakori guda daya kafin mutuwa shekaru, kuma da wuya a ce wannan hominid ya tsira shi kadai. Babu tabbas, duk da haka, wannan ya isa hujja don kulawa - wani gurɓataccen gurɓataccen ƙwayar cuta a cikin Gombe ta rayu tsawon shekaru ba tare da taimako ba. [13] Shaidu na farko da aka sani game da H. erectus na Afirka, wanda aka yiwa lakabi da Homo ergaster, ƙashi ne guda ɗaya na occipital (KNM-ER 2598), wanda aka kwatanta da "H. erectus-like", kuma kwanan wata zuwa kusan 1.9 Ma (yanayin da Homo rudolfensis ). Wannan yana biye da gibin burbushin halittu, burbushin halittu na gaba shine KNM-ER 3733, kwanyar kwanyar da aka yi kwanan watan 1.6 Ma. [14] Rukunan Pleistocene na farko a Arewacin Afirka, matsakaicin yanki na Gabashin Afirka da Jojiya, suna cikin ma'anar ma'ana mara kyau. Farkon kwanan wata shine Ain Hanech a arewacin Aljeriya (c. 1.8 [15] - 1.2 Ma [16] ), Layer na daraja na Oldowan . Wadannan shafuka sun tabbatar da cewa farkon Homo erectus ya ketare sassan Arewacin Afirka, wanda yawanci zafi da bushe. :2Akwai ɗan lokaci kaɗan tsakanin bayyanar Homo erectus zuwa Kudancin Caucasus kusan 1.8 Ma, da yuwuwar zuwansa gabas da kudu maso gabashin Asiya. Akwai shaidar H. erectus a Yuanmou, China, wanda ya kai 1.7 Ma kuma a Sangiran, a Java, Indonesia, daga 1.66 Ma. [17]

Ferring et al. (2011) ya nuna cewa har yanzu Homo habilis ne ya isa Yammacin Asiya, kuma farkon H. erectus ya samo asali a can. H. erectus da ya watse daga Yammacin Asiya, zuwa Gabashin Asiya ( Peking Man ) Kudu maso Gabashin Asiya ( Java Man ), ya koma Afirka ( Homo ergaster ), da Turai ( Tautavel Man ). [18] [19]

Ya bayyana H. erectus ya dauki lokaci mai tsawo don matsawa zuwa Turai, wurin farko shine Barranco León a kudu maso gabashin Spain wanda aka danganta zuwa 1.4 Ma, wanda ke hade da Homo antecessor, [20] da kuma Pirro Nord a Kudancin Italiya, wanda ake zargi daga 1.7 - 1.3 Ma. [21] The paleobiogeography na farkon ɗan adam warwatse a yammacin Eurasia characterizes H. ex gr. erectus a matsayin stenobiont mai kula da zafin jiki, wanda ya kasa warwatse arewacin Alpide Belt . [22] Ya kamata a yi la'akari da ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun kasancewar farkon ɗan adam a yankin Iberian a matsayin shaida na dorewar kasancewar yawan ɗan adam a wannan yanki keɓe. Filin Pannonian, wanda ke kudu maso yammacin tsaunin Carpathian, a fili yana da yanayi mai dumi mai kama da na Yankin Bahar Rum, yayin da yanayin yankin yammacin Turai ya ragu ta hanyar tasirin Gulf Stream kuma yana iya tallafawa tarwatsawa na hominin zuwa yankin Iberian Peninsula . [22] A bayyane yake, musayar faunal tsakanin kudu maso gabashin Turai da Gabas ta Tsakiya da Kudancin Asiya an sarrafa su ta hanyar hadaddun hulɗar irin waɗannan matsalolin ƙasa kamar Bosporus da Manych Strait, shingen yanayi daga arewacin Babban Caucasus, da kuma 41 kyr glacial Milankovitch hawan keke wanda akai-akai rufe Bosporus, kuma ta haka ne ya haifar da Gabas ta Gabas da Gabas ta Tsakiya . a fili, da kara yamma tarwatsa na archaic hominins a Eurasia. [23]

Da 1 Ma, Homo erectus ya bazu ko'ina cikin Eurasia (mafi yawa an iyakance shi zuwa latitudes kudu na 50th parallel arewa ). Yana da wuya a ce, ko ana ci gaba da sasantawa a Yammacin Turai, ko kuma idan tãguwar ruwa ta sake mamaye yankin a cikin tsaka-tsakin glacial. Kayan aikin Acheulean na farko a Ubeidiya daga 1.4 Ma [24] wasu shaidu ne na ci gaba da zama a yamma, kamar yadda tãguwar ruwa ke ci gaba da fitowa daga Afirka bayan haka zai iya kawo fasahar Acheulean zuwa Yammacin Turai.

Kasancewar ƙananan Paleolithic ragowar ɗan adam a cikin tsibiran Indonesiya shaida ce mai kyau don tafiya ta teku ta Homo erectus a ƙarshen Pleistocene na Farko . Bednarik ya ba da shawarar cewa kewayawa ya bayyana ta 1 Ma, mai yiwuwa don cin gajiyar wuraren kamun kifi na teku. [25] Ya sake haifar da wani jirgin ruwa na farko na digible (steerable) don nuna yiwuwar tafiya a fadin Lombok Strait akan irin wannan na'ura, wanda ya yi imanin cewa an yi shi kafin 850 ka. Mashigin ya kiyaye faɗin akalla 20 km ga dukan Pleistocene. Irin wannan nasarar da Homo erectus ya samu a farkon Pleistocene yana ba da ƙarfi ga hanyoyin ruwa da aka ba da shawarar daga Afirka, kamar yadda hanyoyin fita Gibraltar, Sicilian, da Bab-el-Mandeb ke da wuya a yi la'akari da idan an ɗauki jirgin ruwa fiye da ƙarfin Homo erectus .

Homo heidelbergensis

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Mutanen Archaic a Turai waɗanda suka fara kusan 0.8 Ma (ƙungiyoyin Acheulean masu fa'ida ) an rarraba su azaman dabam, nau'in da aka samo asali, wanda aka sani da Homo heidelbergensis . [3] H. heidelbergensis daga kusan 0.4 Ma yana haɓaka masana'antar sifa ta kansa, wanda aka sani da Clactonian . H. heidelbergensis yana da alaƙa da Homo rhodesiensis (wanda kuma aka sani da Homo heidelbergensis sensu lato ko African H. heidelbergensis ), wanda aka sani yana nan a kudancin Afirka ta 0.3 Ma.

Homo sapiens yana fitowa a Afirka kafin kimanin 0.3 Ma daga zuriyar da ke da alaƙa da farkon H. heidelbergensis . [26] Tashin farko na " Daga Afirka II da "farkon kasancewar H. sapiens a Yammacin Asiya, na iya zuwa tsakanin .3 da 0.2 Ma, [26] kuma an tabbatar da 0.13 Ma. [27] Binciken kwayoyin halitta kuma ya nuna cewa ƙaura daga baya na H. sapiens (daga .07-.05 Ma) daga Afirka shine ke da alhakin kowa ga yawancin zuriyar mutanen da ba na Afirka ba. [28] [29] [30]

Hanyoyin fita daga Afirka

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Mafi yawan kulawa game da hanyar da aka ɗauka daga Afirka zuwa Yammacin Asiya ana ba da ita ga mashigin ƙasar Levantine da mashigin Bab-el-Mandeb . Ƙarshen ya raba Kahon Afirka da Larabawa, kuma mai yiwuwa ya ƙyale bushewa a wasu lokuta na Pleistocene. Wani dan takara shine mashigar Gibraltar . An ba da shawarar wata hanya ta mashigin Sicily a cikin shekarun 1970 amma yanzu ana ganin ba za ta yiwu ba.

Levantine corridor

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Amfani da hominins na Levantine corridor, haɗa Masar ta hanyar Sinai Peninsula tare da Gabashin Bahar Rum, yana da alaƙa da yanayin tashin hankali da raguwar zafi na bel ɗin hamada na arewacin Afirka, wanda aka sani da famfon Sahara . Yawancin wuraren hominin da ke cikin Levant, kamar Ubeidiya da kogon Misliya, ana amfani da su azaman alamun wannan hanyar ƙaura. Kamar yadda na 2012, nazarin kwayoyin halitta na yawan mutane a Afirka da Eurasia yana goyan bayan ra'ayin cewa a lokacin Paleolithic da Mesolithic lokaci, wannan hanya ta kasance mafi mahimmanci ga ] [ adam guda biyu tsakanin Afirka da Eurasia fiye da Kahon Afirka.

Kahon Afirka zuwa Arabiya (Bab el-Mandeb)

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Mashigin Bab-el-Mandeb

Bab-el-Mandeb yana da shekaru 30 macijin kilomita tsakanin Gabashin Afirka da yankin Larabawa, mai karamin tsibiri, Perim, 3 km daga bankin Arabiya. Mashigin yana da babban abin jan hankali a cikin binciken fadada Eurasian ta yadda ya kawo Gabashin Afirka kusa da Eurasia. Ba ya buƙatar yin tsalle daga wannan ruwa zuwa na gaba a hamadar Arewacin Afirka.

Haɗin ƙasa tare da Arabia ya ɓace a cikin Pliocene, [31] kuma ko da yake yana iya ɗan sake gyarawa.[yaushe?] [32] da ƙafewar Tekun Bahar Maliya da haɓakar haɓakar salinity zai bar burbushi a cikin tarihin burbushin bayan shekaru 200 kawai da kuɓuta bayanan bayan shekaru 600. Ba a gano ko daya ba. [33] Ruwa mai ƙarfi daga Bahar Maliya zuwa Tekun Indiya da tsallakawa zai yi wahala ba tare da haɗin ƙasa ba.

An ba da rahoton kayan aikin Oldowan daga tsibirin Perim, [34] yana nuna cewa za a iya ketare matsi a farkon Pleistocene, amma har yanzu ba a tabbatar da waɗannan binciken ba. [35]

Mashigar Gibraltar

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Mashigar Gibraltar ita ce kofar shiga daga tekun Atlantika zuwa Bahar Rum, inda gefen kasar Spain da Maroko ke nisan kilomita 14 kacal. Raguwar matakin teku a zamanin Pleistocene saboda zamanin kankara ba zai rage wannan tazara zuwa kasa da kilomita 10 ba. Ruwa mai zurfi yana tura zuwa yamma, yayin da ruwan saman ke dawowa da karfi zuwa Bahar Rum.

Shigowa zuwa nahiyar Eurasia ta hanyar Mashigar Gibraltar na iya bayyana gawarwakin ɗan adam da aka gano a Barranco León a kudu maso gabashin Spain (shekaru miliyan 1.4 da suka wuce)[20] da kuma a Sima del Elefante a arewacin Spain (shekaru miliyan 1.2 da suka wuce).[36][37] Amma wurin da ake kira Pirro Nord a kudancin Italiya, wanda ake cewa daga shekaru miliyan 1.3 – 1.7 da suka wuce ne,[21] yana iya nuna yiwuwar shigowa daga gabas. Binciken bai kai matakin tabbatar da hakan ba.[4]

Mashigar Sicily

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An ba da shawarar yiwuwar ketare Mashigar Sicily daga Alimen (1975)[38] bisa ga gano kayan aikin zamani na Oldowan a Sicily a shekarar 1973.[39] Amma dai ba a fitar da ranar da aka gano kayan ba ta hanyar radiometric, kuma yana yiwuwa kayan sun fito ne daga tsakiyar zamanin Pleistocene,[40] kuma ba shi da yuwuwa cewa akwai gadar ƙasa a lokacin zamanin Pleistocene.[41]:3

Dalilan Yaduwa

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Sauyin yanayi da sassaucin dabi’ar ɗan adam

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A cikin wani nau'in halitta da ke rayuwa a wani wuri, albarkatu na ƙasa ne ke kayyade yawan waɗanda za su iya rayuwa har abada. Wannan shi ake kira da ƙarfin ɗaukar nauyi. Da zarar an kai wannan mataki, wasu daga cikin halittu na iya ganin yana da sauƙi su samo abinci a wuraren da ba su da yawa ba amma ba a cika amfani da su ba, fiye da wuraren da suka fi dacewa amma suka cika. Homo habilis na iya samun wani matakin sassaucin dabi’a kafin ya fara mamaye waɗannan wuraren (kamar shiga cikin irin na dabbobin da ke farauta).

Wannan sassaucin dabi’ar na iya zama abin da ake fifitawa, wanda daga baya ya haifar da daidaituwar Homo erectus da sabbin muhallai masu buɗewa. Sabon nau'in ɗan adam da ya kware wajen daidaituwa da muhallai daban-daban na iya komawa tsohon matsuguni ya kuma maye gurbin tsohon nau’i. Har ila yau, raguwar daji da ƙanƙantar ƙarfin ɗaukar nauyin dajin a kusan shekaru miliyan 1.8, 1.2 da 0.6 da suka wuce na iya janyo buƙatar daidaituwa da fili mai buɗewa. Da wannan sabon halin Homo erectus na sassaucin muhalli, sauyin yanayi mai kyau na iya buɗe masa hanya zuwa Kogon Levant, watakila lokaci-lokaci, a farkon zamanin Pleistocene.

Akwai hujjoji da ke nuna cewa sauyin yanayi da sauyin halittu a lokacin matsakaicin Pleistocene ya taimaka wajen sauyin nau’in dabbobi, wanda hakan na iya haɗawa da yaduwar ɗan adam kamar yadda aka gano a tarihin ƙasusuwan.

Biya bayan dabbobi

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Binciken kayan tarihi na duwatsu yana nuna cewa dā, ɗan adam ba mai farauta ba ne. Duk da haka, Homo erectus yana iya bin ƙaura ta dabbobi zuwa arewa a lokutan da ruwa ke yawa, yana neman abincin da ya fito daga gawar dabbobin da suka mutu. Damisar da take da hakora masu kaifi Megantereon tana daga cikin manyan dabbobin da ke farauta a farkon da matsakaicin Pleistocene, kafin matakin MIS 12. Ta gushe daga Afirka kimanin shekaru miliyan 1.5 da suka wuce, amma kafin hakan ta riga ta bar Afirka ta hanyar yankin Sinai, tana daga cikin dabbobin da aka gano a wurin tarihi na Ubeidiya kimanin shekaru miliyan 1.4 da suka wuce.

Ba ta iya karya ƙasusuwan dabbobi don ciro majinar ƙashi, don haka dabbobin da ta kashe na iya zama muhimmin tushen abinci ga ɗan adam, musamman a lokacin sanyi. A cewar wannan ra’ayi, ɗan adam ya ci gaba da fafatawa da manyan dawakan da ke satar naman dabbobi kamar Pachycrocuta don mallakar waɗannan gawarwaki. A lokacin sanyi a nahiyar Eurasia, abincin ɗan adam na iya kasancewa da nama ne kawai, kuma masu farautar Acheulean dole su fafata da damisa da sauran dabbobi masu farauta.

Sai dai wasu bincike sun ƙalubalanci wannan ra’ayi, suna cewa yaduwar ɗan adam daga Afirka zuwa Eurasia bai yi daidai da na sauran manyan dabbobi masu shan nono ba, wanda ke nuni da cewa dabbobin ba su ne musabbabin yaduwar ɗan adam ba.

Tasiri

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Bayyanar farkon hominins a nahiyar Eurasia ta zo daidai da raguwar nau’o’in dabbobin daji masu cin naman su a nahiyar. An yi hasashen cewa wannan na da nasaba da sauyin daga fasahar Oldowan zuwa Acheulean, domin ci gaban fasahar Acheulean yana nuna canji a tsarin rayuwar ɗan adam daga kasancewa mai jiran-ganye zuwa zama mai farauta kai tsaye.[42]

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ The term "Out of Africa I" is informal and somewhat rare. The phrase Out of Africa used on its own generally refers to "Out of Africa II", the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Eurasia. "Out of Africa I" is used in 2004, in Marco Langbroek, 'Out of Africa': an investigation into the earliest occupation of the Old World, p. 61, and as the title of a collection of essays, J. G. Fleagle et al. (eds.), Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia (2010). see also: Herschkovitz, Israel; et al. (26 January 2018). "The earliest modern humans outside Africa". Science. 359 (6374): 456–459. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..456H. doi:10.1126/science.aap8369. PMID 29371468. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help); Hurtley, Stella; Szuromi, Phil (2005). "Out of Africa Revisited". Science. 308 (5724): 922. doi:10.1126/science.308.5724.921g. S2CID 220100436.
  2. 1 2 3 Zhu Zhaoyu (朱照宇); Dennell, Robin; Huang Weiwen (黄慰文); Wu Yi (吴翼); Qiu Shifan (邱世藩); Yang Shixia (杨石霞); Rao Zhiguo (饶志国); Hou Yamei (侯亚梅); Xie Jiubing (谢久兵); Han Jiangwei (韩江伟); Ouyang Tingping (欧阳婷萍) (2018). "Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago". Nature. 559 (7715): 608–612. Bibcode:2018Natur.559..608Z. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 29995848. S2CID 49670311. "Eight major magnetozones are recorded in the Shangchen section, four of which have normal polarity (N1 to N4) and four of which have reversed polarity (R1 to R4). By comparison with the geomagnetic polarity timescale [...] magnetozone N4 corresponds to the Réunion excursion (2.13–2.15 Ma) in L28." Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Zhu2018" defined multiple times with different content
  3. 1 2 Bar-Yosef, O.; Belfer-Cohen, A. (2001). "From Africa to Eurasia – early dispersals". Quaternary International. 75 (1): 19–28. Bibcode:2001QuInt..75...19B. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(00)00074-4. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Bar-Yosef, O. 2001" defined multiple times with different content
  4. 1 2 Straus, L. G.; Bar-Yosef, O. (2001). "Out of Africa in the Pleistocene: an introduction". Quaternary International. 75 (1): 2–4. Bibcode:2001QuInt..75....1S. doi:10.1016/s1040-6182(00)00071-9.
  5. ↑ Gierliński, Gerard D.; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz; Lockley, Martin G.; Athanassiou, Athanassios; Fassoulas, Charalampos; Dubicka, Zofia; Boczarowski, Andrzej; Bennett, Matthew R.; Ahlberg, Per Erik (1 October 2017). "Possible hominin footprints from the late Miocene (c. 5.7 Ma) of Crete?". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association (in Turanci). 128 (5): 697–710. Bibcode:2017PrGA..128..697G. doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2017.07.006. ISSN 0016-7878. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  6. ↑ Kirscher, Uwe; El Atfy, Haytham; Gärtner, Andreas; Dallanave, Edoardo; Munz, Philipp; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz; Athanassiou, Athanassios; Fassoulas, Charalampos; Linnemann, Ulf; Hofmann, Mandy; Bennett, Matthew; Ahlberg, Per Erik; Böhme, Madelaine (11 October 2021). "Age constraints for the Trachilos footprints from Crete". Scientific Reports (in Turanci). 11 (1): 19427. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1119427K. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-98618-0. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8505496 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34635686 Check |pmid= value (help).
  7. ↑ Zachariasse, Willem Jan; Lourens, Lucas J. (2022-11-02). "About the age and depositional depth of the sediments with reported bipedal footprints at Trachilos (NW Crete, Greece)". Scientific Reports (in Turanci). 12 (1): 18471. Bibcode:2022NatSR..1218471Z. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-23296-5. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 9630425 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 36323766 Check |pmid= value (help).
  8. ↑ Semaw, S (2000). "The World's Oldest Stone Artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: Their Implications for Understanding Stone Technology and Patterns of Human Evolution Between 2·6–1·5 Million Years Ago". Journal of Archaeological Science. 27 (12): 1197–1214. Bibcode:2000JArSc..27.1197S. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0592.
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  41. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Lahr 2010
  42. ↑ Rodríguez-Gómez, Guillermo; Martín-González, Jesús A.; Espigares, M. Patrocinio; Bermúdez de Castro, José María; Martínez-Navarro, Bienvenido; Arsuaga, Juan Luis; Palmqvist, Paul (15 March 2024). "From meat availability to hominin and carnivore biomass: A paleosynecological approach to reconstructing predator-prey biomass ratios in the Pleistocene". Quaternary Science Reviews (in Turanci). 328: 108474. Bibcode:2024QSRv..32808474R. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108474.
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