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Yakin Neman Ƴancin Guinea-Bissau

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Yakin Neman Ƴancin Guinea-Bissau
yaƙe-yaƙe na 'yanci na ƙasa
Bayanai
Bangare na Yaƙin mulkin mallaka na Portugal
Lokacin farawa 23 ga Janairu, 1963
Lokacin gamawa 10 Satumba 1974
Wuri
Map
 12°N 15°W / 12°N 15°W / 12; -15

Yaƙin Neman Ƴancin Guinea-Bissau, wanda kuma aka sani da Bissau-Guinean War of Independence, wani rikici ne na 'yancin kai da makami wanda ya faru a Guinea Portuguese daga 1963 zuwa 1974. An yi yaƙi tsakanin Portugal da Jam'iyyar Afirka don 'Yancin Guinea da Cape Verde ( Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde, PAIGC), ƙungiyar 'yan cin gashin kai tare da goyon bayan Cuba, Tarayyar Soviet, Yugoslavia da Brazil . Ana kiran yakin da " Betnam ta Portugal" saboda yakin neman zabe ne wanda ya dade yana da tsada sosai a maza da kayan aiki wanda ya haifar da rudani na siyasa na cikin gida a Portugal.

Bayan kashe shugaban PAIGC Amílcar Cabral a watan Janairun 1973, rikicin soja ya kai ga tangarda : Sojojin Portugal sun fi yawa a cikin manyan birane da sansanonin kagara daban-daban kuma ba su da ikon korar PAIGC daga yankunan da ake kira 'yantar da su. A cikin watan Satumban 1973, Majalisar Dokokin Jama'a ta PAIGC ta bayyana ' yancin kai na sabuwar jamhuriyar Guinea-Bissau ; Kasashen waje da dama sun amince da sanarwar. Bayan juyin juya halin Carnation, sabuwar gwamnatin Portuguese ta amince da ba da 'yancin kai ga Guinea-Bissau a watan Satumba na 1974 da kuma Cape Verde shekara guda. Don haka PAIGC ta zama ƙungiya ta farko ta 'yantar da yankin Saharar Afirka don samun 'yancin kai - in dai a kaikaice - ta hanyar gwagwarmayar makami. [1]

Fage

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Turawan mulkin mallaka na Portugal

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Ginin Fotigal (da kuma tsibirin Cape Verde na Portuguese na kusa) an yi iƙirarin a matsayin yankin Fotigal tun 1446 kuma ya kasance babban wurin kasuwanci ga kayayyaki da bayi na Afirka a ƙarni na 18. Duk da haka, ba a sami cikakkiyar “lafiya” ba har zuwa ƙarshen 1930s, lokacin da gwamnatin Portugal ta António de Oliveira Salazar ta shagaltu da ci gaban ƙasashen Angola da Mozambique. [1] An sami sauye-sauye iri-iri ga matsayin doka da tsarin mulki a wannan lokacin da kuma a cikin shekarun da suka biyo baya, amma sun kasance da farko "na kwaskwarima" a tasiri. [1]

A cikin jumlar Patrick Chabal, Guinea ita ce "mafi ƙanƙanta kuma mafi koma baya a cikin yankunan Portugal", wani ɓangare saboda yanayin da ba shi da kyau da kuma bayyanar ƙarancin albarkatun ƙasa da ma'adinai. [1] Akwai 'yan ƙalilan Turawa a Guinea, kuma sawun hatta na gwamnatin Portugal ba shi da yawa kuma "danye", ya rage a ƙarƙashin gwamna. Portugal ba ta saka hannun jari kadan a cikin mulkin mallaka kuma ta yi ƙanƙanta kaɗan don haɓaka ci gaban tattalin arzikinta da zamantakewa. [1] Duk da haka, tattalin arzikin mulkin mallaka ya wanzu a babban yankin Guinea, wanda kamfanin Companhia União Fabril ne ke kula da shi da farko kuma ya ƙunshi da farko na fitar da tsabar kuɗi ; [2] tattalin arzikin Guinea na gargajiya ya rushe duka biyu ta hanyar wajibi don noman amfanin gona na fitarwa da harajin Portuguese. [1] Bugu da ƙari, Portugal ta kasance manne har ma da mafi yawan 'yan mulkin mallaka, tare da kallon kulawa da ita a matsayin wani muhimmin mahimmanci ga Portugal a kan wasu yankuna masu mahimmanci na tattalin arziki, musamman Angola da Mozambique. [2]

Kafuwar PAIGC

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Jagoran juyin juya hali Amílcar Cabral, wanda ya kafa PAIGC tare da wasu

Ƙungiyar juyin juya hali da ta jagoranci yaki daga ƙarshe ita ce Jam’iyyar Afirka don ’Yancin Guinea da Cape Verde (a harshen Fotigal: Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde, PAIGC), wata ƙungiyar ’yancin kai da Rafael Barbosa da ɗan gwagwarmayar ƙasa kuma masani, Amílcar Cabral, suka kafa a shekarar 1956.[3] Tun daga farko, manyan manufofinta su ne haɗin kai tsakanin Guinea-Bissau da Cape Verde da kuma samun ’yancin kai daga mulkin Fotigal.[1] A cikin shekaru ukun farko, PAIGC ta mayar da hankali wajen fafutukar doka da kundin tsarin mulki wanda bai haifar da wani gagarumin sakamako ba, inda aka fi gudanar da hakan a Bissau da sauran manyan birane, har ma da haɗin gwiwa da ƙungiyoyin ƙwadago na cikin gida a wasu lokuta.[3]

Sai dai, a ranar 3 ga Agusta 1959, PAIGC ta shirya wani babban yajin aikin ma’aikatan tashar jiragen ruwa a Tashar jiragen ruwa ta Bissau. Jami’an mulkin mallaka na Fotigal sun tarwatsa yajin aikin da karfi, wanda ya haifar da abin da aka sani da kisan kiyashi na Pidjiguiti, inda aka kashe akalla mutane hamsin sannan aka jikkata daruruwan wasu.[1][4]

Bangarori da Sojoji

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Sojojin Yanci/PAIGC

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Kungiyar gwagwarmayar 'yanci ta Guinea-Bissau, PAIGC ce ke jagoranta kuma ta mamaye ta, wadda Cabral ya jagoranta har zuwa lokacin da aka kashe shi a watan Janairu 1973.[5] A farkon shekarun 1970, PAIGC tana da goyon bayan mafi yawan al'ummar Guinea,[6] amma karfin yaƙinta bai wuce 7,000 ba.[2] Sai dai, kungiyar tana da "ingantaccen horo, ingantaccen shugabanci, da ingantaccen kayan aiki", kuma yakin gwagwarmayarta ya amfana daga yanayin kasa – sojojinta sun fi yin aiki daga dazuzzukan Guinea – da kuma goyon bayan waje.[7]

Tsari

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A shekarar 1964, PAIGC ta gudanar da taron Cassaca, wanda ya yanke shawarar yin garambawul don hana son mulkin soja a cikin kungiyar. Bayan haka, kokarin yaki ba kungiyoyin 'yan tawaye masu cin gashin kai suka gudanar ba, amma raka'o'in 'yan tawaye ne a cikin sojojin kasa, Rundunar Sojojin Juyin Juya Hali ta Jama'a (Forças Armadas Revolucionárias do Povo, FARP). Daga nan har zuwa karshen yakin, asalin rukunin yaki a FARP shine "kungiya biyu" mai matukar sassauci (bi-grupo), wanda ya kunshi rukunoni biyu daban-daban na mutane 15 zuwa 25 kowannensu, yawanci suna aiki tare amma kuma suna iya ci gaba da aiki idan sun rabu (ko kuma idan an hade su da sauran kungiyoyi biyu).[1] Haka kuma daga shekarar 1964, PAIGC ta aiwatar da abin da Chabal ya kira "umarni biyu" a dukkan matakan tsarinta na soja: a kowane mataki, jagoranci mutane biyu ne ke yi tare, kwamandan soja daya da kwamishinan siyasa daya.[1] File:Amilcar Cabral FOCR.jpg|left|thumb|Cabral tare da Nicolae Ceaușescu, wanda gwamnatinsa ta ba da wasu iyakantaccen goyon baya ga PAIGC

Goyon Bayan Waje

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Shugaban Senegal Léopold Sédar Senghor gaba daya yana goyon bayan Yamma ne kuma ya yi hadin gwiwa sosai da shugabannin Portugal wajen kokarin samar da mafita ta siyasa ga rikicin.[8] (Brazil, wadda ita ma tsohuwar mulkin mallaka ce ta Portugal, ta ba da shawarar shiga tsakani.[9]) Duk da haka, a lokaci guda, Senegal ta samar da mafaka ga PAIGC daga 1966, lokacin da gwamnatin Senghor ta amince a hukumance ta ba wa sojojin PAIGC damar yin zirga-zirga kyauta a ciki da wajen Senegal, inda za a ba PAIGC damar kafa sansanoni.[6] A lokaci guda kuma, PAIGC ta rike hedikwatarta a gudun hijira a Guinea-Conakry, wadda ita ce makwabciyar Guinea kuma abokiyar PAIGC.[8]

A wani wuri a Afirka, PAIGC ta samu tallafin kayan aiki daga Libya, wadda a lokacin ke karkashin Muammar Gaddafi,[10] da kuma daga sabuwar gwamnatin juyin juya hali ta Aljeriya.[11][12] A matsayin kungiya mai ra'ayin gurguzu da ke aiki a tsayin Daren Sanyi, ta sami goyon baya, daga farkon shekarun 1960, daga kasashen gurguzu da ke nesa, ciki har da Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Sin, Tarayyar Soviet, da Czechoslovakia.[13] Tsakanin 1966 zuwa 1974, PAIGC ta sami goyon baya daga gwamnatin Fidel Castro a Cuba, wanda ya tura wasu likitoci, masu horar da sojoji, da masana fasaha zuwa sansanonin PAIGC.[14] Sojojin Cuba sun ga wasu iyakantattun fada yayin da suke Guinea,[15] amma tawagar sojojin Cuba karama ce – tana da matsakaicin maza 50-60 a kowane lokaci, galibi masu amfani da manyan bindigogi – kuma Cabral ya ki amincewa da tayin su na maimaita shiga cikin fada.[14] Sauran kasashen Gabas – Poland, Bulgaria, Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Jamus, da Romania – "sun yi kadan" da PAIGC, suna ba da iyakantaccen tallafin da ba na soja ba a cikin nau'ikan tallafin farfaganda da guraben karatu don horar da fasaha da ilimin siyasa.[13] Irin wannan yanayin ya faru a dangantakar PAIGC da Yugoslavia[16][17] da Sweden.[18] Tsakanin tsakiyar 1969 zuwa tsakiyar 1975 PAIGC ta sami miliyan 45.2 na Kronor na Sweden a matsayin tallafi daga jihar Sweden, wanda ya wakilci kashi biyu bisa uku na tallafin Sweden ga kungiyoyin 'yanci na Afirka a wannan lokacin. Sweden ce ta kasance mai ba da gudummawa mafi muhimmanci na kayan da ba na soja ba ga PAIGC a lokacin karshen yakin 'yanci.[19]

A karshe, PAIGC ta sami goyon baya mai yawa daga 'yan gudun hijira na Bissau-Guinean, wanda ya karu sakamakon yawan gudun hijira a lokacin yakin PAIGC na 1964 da kuma lokacin hare-haren bama-bamai na Portugal a 1965 da 1967.[6] A shekarar 1970, an kiyasta Guinean 106,000 – kusan kashi 20 cikin dari na yawan al'ummar yankin – sun gudu daga yakin kuma sun koma kasashen makwabta na Guinea-Conakry da Senegal.[6] Wadannan al'ummomin bakin haure, musamman wadanda ke zaune a yankunan kan iyaka, sun samar da mafaka ga sojojin PAIGC kuma sun taimaka wa sojojin PAIGC su motsa kayan makamai na yau da kullun daga Guinea-Conakry da Senegal zuwa Guinea ta Portugal. Kowace wata, ana jigilar kayan aiki ta mota daga Koundara, Guinea-Conakry zuwa garuruwan Senegal, ciki har da Vélingara, inda sojojin da ke goyon bayan PAIGC ke kula da sito, sannan a kai su kan iyaka da kafa.[6]

Rundunar Sojin Portugal

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PAIGC ta fuskanci adawa daga sojojin mulkin mallaka na Rundunar Sojin Portugal da ke Guinea, wadanda suka karu a farkon shekarun yakin.[1] Ga mafi yawan yakin, daga 1968 har zuwa Agusta 1973, Janar António de Spínola ya kasance gwamna kuma kwamandan soja a Guinea ta Portugal, ya gaji Janar Arnaldo Schultz a dukkan mukamai biyu.[20] An kiyasta karfin sojojinsa a Guinea tsakanin 31,000[21] da 32,000[2] a 1974, kuma sojojin sun kunshi sojojin birni da Guinean da aka dauka a gida.

Za su tuna ku. Sojan Portugal. Kai, wanda kake ci gaba a cikin sojojin mulkin mallaka: don shiga cikin laifuka ga mutanenmu: don bayar da gudummawa ga lalata kasarka… KAWAI DOMIN FARIN CIKIN MASU AZZALUMAN KASARKU

– Takardar PAIGC da aka raba a Guinea, farkon shekarun 1970[6]

Afirkanci

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"Afirkanci" na yakin da Portugal ta yi, wanda kuma aka bi a fagen yakin Angola da yakin Mozambique, ya ci gaba da sauri musamman a Guinea, musamman bayan nadin Janar Spínola. Ya kunshi hada 'yan asalin Afirka na Guinea cikin rundunar sojojin Portugal da suka yi yaki da PAIGC. Har zuwa shekarun 1950, rundunar sojojin Portugal da ke zaune a Guinea ta kunshi karamin karfi na sojojin mulkin mallaka na Afirka da aka dauka a gida (caçadores indigenas), wanda jami'an farar fata ke jagoranta; jami'an da ba su da mukami sun kasance cakuda farar fata, sojojin ketare (Afirka assimilados), da 'yan asalin Afirka (indigenato).[22] Spínola ya shirya – kuma ya yi yaki da Lisbon – don kawar da bambanci da nuna bambanci tsakanin sojojin birni da sojojin da aka dauka a gida, ya kuma dauki alhakin kirkirar rundunar sojojin Afirka ta yau da kullun da ke da tsarin da ya yi kama da na sojojin birni.[23]

Afirkanci ya haifar da babban karuwa a cikin daukar 'yan asalin kasar cikin rundunar sojojin.[24] A farkon shekarun 1970, kashi mai karuwa na Guinean suna hidima a matsayin jami'ai marasa mukami ko masu mukami a cikin rundunar sojojin Portugal a Afirka. An horar da manyan sojojin gida a Cibiyoyin Koyarwar Kwando na Portugal, ciki har da cikin Guinea, inda aka kafa irin wannan cibiya ta farko a 1964, amma a yawancin lokuta a Angola.[23] Rundunar sojojin Portugal ta dauki 'yan Afirka galibi daga cikin al'ummomin yankunan da suka sarrafa. Musamman, mambobin kabilar Fulbe sun fi yawa a cikin sojojin Portugal, wani bangare saboda yawancin Fulbe suna zaune a yankunan gabas wadanda Portugal ta sarrafa har zuwa karshen yakin kuma inda shugabannin kabilu ke da dangantaka "galibi mai kyau" da Portuguese.[25] Haka kuma farfaganda ta mulkin mallaka, tilastawa, da kuma bayar da albashi ga masu shiga aikin soja sun taimaka wa daukar ma'aikata na Portugal.[25]

A karkashin Spínola, Portuguese sun kuma kirkiri rukunoni biyu na manyan sojoji na musamman da suka kunshi 'yan fada na Afirka kuma suka shiga yaki da 'yan tawaye. An kirkiri Rundunar Sojojin Ruwa ta Musamman ta Afirka (Fuzileiros Especiais Africanos) a 1970 kuma a 1974 sun kai mutane 160 a cikin rukunoni biyu;[23] sun karfafa sauran manyan raka'o'in Portuguese da ke gudanar da ayyukan ruwa a yankunan koguna na Guinea wadanda suka yi kokarin dakatar da lalata sojojin 'yan tawaye da kayan aiki.[24] Hukumar Kwando ta Afirka (Comandos Africanos) ta fara aiki a 1972 kuma ta kunshi mutane 700 a cikin bataliyoyi uku a 1974.[23] Hukumar Kwando ta Afirka ta kunshi 'yan Afirka ne kawai kuma ta gudanar da ayyukan yaki na musamman a makwabtan Senegal da Guinea-Conakry da kuma cikin Guinea ta Portugal.[23] Hukumar Kwando ta shahara musamman wajen gudanar da hare-hare na kwando da jirgin helikwafta a kan kauyukan da ake kira 'yantattu a karkashin ikon PAIGC – "sigar sojojin Amurka na ayyukan 'bincike da lalata' a Vietnam" na Spínola – kuma a yankunan da aka 'yanta "an ki su sosai saboda zaluncinsu da rashin tausayinsu".[26]

File:P2V-5 Neptunes of the Portuguese Air Force.jpg|thumb|Jirgin Lockheed P-2 Neptune na Rundunar Sojin Sama ta Portugal, shekarun 1970.Haka kuma, a farkon yakin, Portugal ta dauki 'yan banga na gida – kamfanoni 18 a 1966 – don tsara "kai-da-kai" na al'ummomin gida, don haka ya ba da damar rundunar sojojin balaguro don ayyukan kai hari.[23] Da zarar an nada Spínola, ta hanyar daukar ma'aikata daga cikin 'yan bangan da ake da su, ya kirkiri 'Yan Banga na Musamman na 'yan fada na gida da aka tsara a cikin kungiyoyin yaki, daidai da sojojin Portugal (a cikin kamfanoni da aka raba zuwa rukunoni), kuma suna aiki da kansu.[23] A 1968, ya ba da shawarar kirkirar irin wadannan 'yan banga na musamman guda biyar, amma Lisbon ta ba da izini guda biyu kawai a 1970, saboda damuwa game da matsalolin kudi da kuma "rashin tsari" da Afirkanci ya haifar.[23]

Dangane da kiyasin bayan yakin, sojojin da aka dauka a gida a Guinea sun kai 1,000 a 1961 (kashi 21.1% na dukkan sojojin Portugal a can), 3,229 (kashi 14.9%) a 1967, da 6,425 (kashi 20.1%) a 1973.[23] Dubban dubban 'yan gida sun shiga cikin 'yan banga masu goyon bayan Portugal.[26] Gaba daya, akwai "a kalla a takarda, fiye da 17,000" 'yan fada na Afirka a Guinea;[26] a wani kiyasin, a jajibirin janye sojojin Portugal a 1974, jimillar sojojin Portugal a yankin sun kai kimanin 31,000, daga cikinsu 24,800 baƙar fata ne kuma 6,200 farare ne.[21]

Goyon bayan waje

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Shugaban Senegal Léopold Sédar Senghor ya kasance yana goyon bayan kasashen Yamma gaba ɗaya, kuma ya yi aiki tare da shugabannin Portugal don neman mafita ta siyasa ga rikicin.[8] (Brazil, wanda shima tsohon mulkin mallaka ne na Portugal, ya bayar da tayin shiga tsakani.[27])

A lokaci guda, Senegal ta bayar da mafaka ga PAIGC tun daga 1966, lokacin da gwamnatin Senghor ta yarda da izinin motsi na sojojin PAIGC cikin ‘yanci a ciki da wajen kasar, inda aka ba su damar kafa sansanoni.[6] A lokaci guda kuma, PAIGC ta ci gaba da gudanar da hedkwatarta ta wucin gadi a Guinea-Conakry, makwabciyar kasar Guinea kuma abokiyar kawance da PAIGC.[8]

A wasu sassan Afirka, PAIGC ta samu tallafin kayan aiki daga Libiya, a lokacin gwamnatin Muammar Gaddafi,[28] da kuma daga sabuwar gwamnatin juyin juya halin Algeria.[29][30]

A matsayin ƙungiyar Marxist da ke aiki a lokacin yakin cacar baka, PAIGC ta samu goyon baya daga kasashen gurguzu tun daga farkon shekarun 1960, ciki har da Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Sin, Tarayyar Soviet, da Czechoslovakia.[13]

Daga 1966 zuwa 1974, PAIGC ta samu tallafi daga gwamnatin Fidel Castro na Cuba, wanda ya tura likitoci, malamai na soja da injiniyoyi zuwa sansanonin PAIGC.[14] Sojojin Cuba sun shiga fagen daga a wasu lokuta a Guinea,[31] amma rundunar ta Cuba ba ta da yawa – kimanin mutane 50–60 a kowane lokaci, mafi yawa masu aikin harba bindiga – kuma Cabral ya ƙi tayin da suka maimaita na shiga aikin yaki kai tsaye.[14]

Sauran ƙasashen gurguzu – Poland, Bulgaria, Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Jamus, da Romania – sun ba da gudummawa kaɗan, kamar tallafin yaɗa labarai da tallafin karatu don horar da fasaha da ilimin siyasa.[13]

Haka kuma dangantakar PAIGC da Yugoslavia[32][33] da Sweden ta kasance kamar haka. Daga tsakiyar 1969 zuwa tsakiyar 1975, PAIGC ta karɓi tallafi na kudin Swedish kronor miliyan 45.2 daga gwamnatin Sweden, wanda ke wakiltar kaso biyu cikin uku na tallafin da Sweden ta bayar ga gwagwarmayar 'yancin Afirka a wannan lokaci. Sweden ce ta fi bayar da kayan agaji marasa alaka da soja ga PAIGC a ƙarshen yakin 'yanci.[34]

A ƙarshe, PAIGC ta samu tallafi mai girma daga ’yan asalin Guinea-Bissau da ke ƙetare, wadanda suka tsere sakamakon rikicin PAIGC na 1964 da hare-haren bama-baman Portugal a 1965 da 1967.[6] Zuwa 1970, ana kiyasta cewa kimanin mutane 106,000 daga Guinea – kusan kaso 20 cikin 100 na yawan jama'ar yankin – sun tsere daga yaki zuwa kasashen makwabta Guinea-Conakry da Senegal.[6] Wadannan ‘yan gudun hijira, musamman mazauna yankunan kan iyaka, sun samar da mafaka ga dakarun PAIGC, kuma sun taimaka wajen jigilar makamai daga Guinea-Conakry da Senegal zuwa Guinea na Portugal. Kullum, kayan yaki ana jigilar su daga Koundara, Guinea-Conakry zuwa garuruwan Senegal, ciki har da Vélingara, inda goyon bayan PAIGC ke da ma’ajiya, sannan a dauke su ta ƙafa a kan iyaka.[6]

Rikici (1963–1974)

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Taswira da ke nuna ci gaban 'yan tawaye a Guinea-Bissau 1969–1974

Samun Nasara na Farko daga PAIGC: 1963–1967

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PAIGC ta kaddamar da yaki a hukumance a cikin Guinea a farkon shekarar 1963, duk da mawuyacin hali da karancin makamai.[1] Dakaru na PAIGC da ke zama a kudu da bakin kogin Geba sun kai farmaki kan sansanonin sojojin Portugal a Tite da Catió – sansanonin da aka gina da gangan a tsakiyar yankunan da PAIGC ke da karfi domin leken asiri da yaƙin ƙin tawaye.[5] Irin wadannan hare-haren gerilla sun bazu a kudancin Guinea ta Portugal, rikicin ya yadu.[5] Chabal ya bayyana cewa hare-haren sun ba da mamaki ga hukumomin Portugal, waɗanda suka zaci PAIGC za ta fara hare-hare daga wajen iyakar Guinea-Conakry, maimakon ta fara yaƙin gerilla a cikin ƙasar, kuma sojojin Portugal sun yi asarar rayuka da dama tun da farko.[1] A cewar Chabal, dabarar PAIGC ita ce ƙananan ƙungiyoyi na gerilla su sami ƙafa a yankunan da suke da goyon bayan jama’a, tare da kokarin kai hare-hare a kowane lokaci da wuri kan sojojin Portugal domin yanke hanyoyin sadarwa da jigila tare da ware su a wuraren da aka gina da katanga.[1] Manufarsu ba ta da niyyar kwace yankuna sai sun tabbatar da goyon bayan jama’ar yankin.[1] PAIGC ta guji fuskantar sojojin Portugal kai tsaye saboda sun fi su kayan aiki; burinsu shi ne su ci gaba da kai harin gerilla daga karkara zuwa birane, suna kewaye su maimakon kwace su.[1]

A watan Yuli 1963, PAIGC ta karfafa matsayinta a kudancin yankin bakin ruwa, kuma ta samu “dan ƙarin ƙafa” a kusurwar Mansôa–Mansaba–Oio, arewa da bakin kogin Geba.[5] A taron shugabannin PAIGC da ya dauki kwana biyar a wannan wata, an yanke shawarar kara himma a yankin arewa.[5]

Yanayin ƙasa da dazuka masu yawa da hanyoyin ruwa ya dace da ayyukan gerilla. PAIGC ba ta da makamai da yawa – wataƙila bindigar submachine ɗaya da pistols biyu ga kowace ƙungiya – don haka suna kai hari kan motocin sojojin Portugal don kwace makamai. Kowace ƙungiya tana aiki daban tare da matsuguni a daji. Wasu ƙungiyoyin sun kasance bisa la'akari da ƙabila da addini. Wasu daga cikin su sun fara zaluntar jama'a, wanda hakan ya sa mutane suka fara barin yankunan da aka ce an ‘yantar. Manyan shugabannin PAIGC sun firgita da irin wannan hali kuma suka kira shi “umarnin soja” mara tsari. Kusan watan Oktoba 1963, Portugal ta fara mayar da martani da hare-haren jiragen sama; zuwa ƙarshen shekara wasu ƙauyuka sun zama marasa jama'a yayin da mazauna suka buya a daji.[Ana bukatan hujja]

A 1964 PAIGC ta bude sabon gaban yaki a arewa. A watan Afrilu 1964, Portugal ta kaddamar da mayar da martani da sojoji 3,000 da hadin jiragen sama suka kai hari a tsibirin Como da PAIGC ke iko da shi a kudu. Bayan kwana 65 sai suka ja da baya. PAIGC ta ci gaba da kai hare-hare a lokacin damina. Wani lokaci a 1964, jirgin sama na Portugal ya jefa bam a inda sojojinta suke saboda rashin tantancewa. A matsayin ramako, sojoji da matukan jirgi suka kai hari kan barikin jiragen ruwa a babban birnin Bissau.[Ana bukatan hujja]

A 1965, yakin ya bazu zuwa gabashin ƙasar; a wannan shekarar PAIGC ta kara kai hare-hare a arewacin ƙasar inda FLING kawai ke aiki. A wannan lokaci, PAIGC ƙarƙashin jagorancin Amílcar Cabral ta fara karɓar tallafin soja daga Tarayyar Soviet, China da Cuba.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Nasarar PAIGC a yaƙin gerilla ta tilasta wa Exército Português do Ultramar (sojojin Portugal na ketare) da ke Guinea ta Portugal su koma kariya tun daga farko; sun takaita kansu ga kare wuraren da suka mamaye. Ba kamar sauran mulkin mallaka na Portugal ba, dabarun yaƙin gerilla na Portugal sun jinkirta ci gaba. Kare gine-gine da wurare da ƙananan dakaru ke yi ya sanya su zama sauƙin kai musu hari daga PAIGC.[35]

Har ila yau, sojojin Portugal sun rasa kwarin gwiwa saboda karuwar masu mara wa PAIGC baya daga cikin talakawa. A cikin lokaci kaɗan, PAIGC ta rage ikon sojojin Portugal zuwa kananan yankuna a Guinea. Misali, mutanen da ke zaune a yankunan da PAIGC ke iko da su sun daina biyan bashi da haraji ga masu gonaki da gwamnatin mulkin mallaka.[35]

Rumbunan kamfanonin Companhia União Fabril (CUF), Mario Lima Whanon, da Manuel Pinto Brandão sun fada hannun PAIGC inda aka kwashe kayan. An hana amfani da kudin Portugal a yankunan da PAIGC ke iko da su.[35] Domin kula da tattalin arziki, PAIGC ta kafa tsarin mulki na Marxist wanda ya tsara aikin gona, ya ilmantar da manoma yadda za su kare amfanin gonarsu, tare da bude shagunan jama'a (“armazéns do povo”) don sayar da kayan aiki a musanya da kayan gona.[35] Zuwa 1967, PAIGC ta kai hare-hare 147 kan sansanonin soja na Portugal kuma tana da ikon kusan rabin ƙasar.

A shekara ta gaba, Portugal ta fara sabon yunkuri na yakar gerilla da isowar sabon gwamnan mulkin mallaka Janar António de Spínola. Ya gabatar da gyare-gyaren soja da na farar hula, ciki har da yakin neman amincewar jama'a, kokarin kawar da wariya, gina makarantu, asibitoci, hanyoyin sadarwa, da daukar jama'ar gida cikin rundunar soja na Portugal. Portugal ta kai farmaki da dama har na kai km 20 daga iyaka. A wani lokaci, jiragen helikofta guda biyar sun saukar da sojoji fararen fata da 'yan Afrika, inda dakarun PAIGC 36 karkashin Bobo suka janye su cikin daji, suka yi musu kwantan bauna da misalin karfe 5 na yamma. PAIGC ta ce Portugal ta yi asarar mutane 5 yayin da ita kuma ta samu mutane 4 da suka jikkata.

A 1966, Portugal ta kaddamar da farmaki guda hudu a Iracunda da ya hada da sojoji da dama dauke da makamai, mortars, da tallafin iska. PAIGC ta ja da baya kafin farmaki ya fara, ta kewaye su da dabara, sannan ta kai hare-haren dare da nufin tarwatsa sahun sojojin. Suna amfani da dabarar janye hankali ta hanyar fakewa a karshen sahu yayin da babban farmakin ke gudana a wani wuri. PAIGC ta dauki sojojin Portugal marasa kwarewa a daji.

A Maris 1968, PAIGC ta kai hari kan filin jirgin sama mafi girma na Portugal kusa da Bissau. Bayan tsauraran matakan tsaro, 'yan PAIGC 13 suka kutsa kusa da filin, suka harba harsasai, suka lalata jirage da gine-gine sannan suka janye ba tare da asara ba.

Portugal ta tura kompani na sojoji a Madina do Boé a gabas kusa da iyakar Guinea. Babu mutane ko gine-gine da yawa da za a kare, don haka sai sojojin suka kare kansu ne kawai. Duk da haka, gwamnati ta ki janye su har zuwa 1969. PAIGC ta yi amfani da hakan a matsayin dama wajen jan hankalin 'yan jarida na kasashen waje.

A tsakiyar 1969, PAIGC ta kaddamar da Operation Tenaz a wuraren da ke kusa da Bafata, arewa da Kogin Corubal. Sun fara da boye makamai a bayansa, sannan suka aika da runduna biyu don leken yadda sojojin Portugal ke tsare yankin, sannan rundunonin farmaki guda biyu da mutane da dama suka shiga suka kai farmaki.

Sauye-sauyen dabarun soja

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Motar yaki ta Portugal da aka lalata a Guinea-Bissau

Sauye-sauyen dabarun soja daga jagororin Portugal sun hada da amfani da dabarun ruwa domin shawo kan matsalar motsi a cikin karkara da dazuka. Wannan dabarun ya hada da amfani da Destacamentos de Fuzileiros Especiais (DFE) – rundunar sojojin ruwa na musamman. Fuzileiros Especiais sun kasance da makamai masu saukin nauyi kamar bindigogi m/961 (G3), roka 37mm, da HK21 domin saukin motsi a cikin dazuka da ruwan kwari.

Daga 1968 zuwa 1972, Portugal ta kara yawan hare-haren farmaki a cikin yankunan da PAIGC ke iko da su. Wannan lokaci ne kuma da suka fara amfani da dabaru marasa tushe wajen yaki da 'yan tawaye, ciki har da hare-hare akan

Mamayar Guinea: Nuwamba 1970

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A ƙarshen watan Nuwamba 1970,[36] Portugal ta kaddamar da Operation Green Sea, wani hari na ruwa da ƙasa akan Guinea-Conakry da nufin cafke shugabannin PAIGC, ciki har da Cabral, da kifar da Shugaban ƙasar Guinea Ahmed Sékou Touré, domin a maye gurbinsa da wani shugaba mai son yin aiki tare da Portugal da kuma katse hanyoyin samar da kayan aikin PAIGC.[2] Chabal ya bayyana wannan hari da cewa "ba a tsara shi yadda ya kamata ba kuma ba a yi shi a lokaci mai kyau ba", kuma yana da kamanceceniya da "fita hayyacinsa":[1] jami’an Portugal an tarwatsa su daga Conakry, kuma, bayan hakan, wannan harin ya sake tayar da goyon bayan ƙasashen Duniya ga PAIGC, lamarin da ya dagula dangantakar Portugal da sauran ƙasashen Yamma.[37] Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya (UN) ta la’anci wannan hari ta hanyar Kuduri na 290, kuma a shekara ta gaba ta sake fitar da Kuduri na 291 don yin tir da sauran hare-haren da Portugal ke kaiwa kan Guinea daga ƙetare.

A cikin shekaru biyu masu zuwa, Portugal ta kasa samun ci gaba a fagen yaki ko kuma hana ci gaban PAIGC. A farkon shekarar 1972, duk da cewa iyakokin ƙasa ba su da tabbas, yawancin ƙasar na hannun yankunan da PAIGC ta 'yanta;[6] zuwa ƙarshen shekara, wani irin daidaito de facto ko ma "halin da ya zama al’ada" ya samu tsakanin dakarun Portugal da na PAIGC.[38] A wannan lokaci kuma, PAIGC ta kaddamar da gagarumar fafutukar siyasa – bayan ta fahimci a kusan shekarar 1971 cewa samun ‘yancin kai yana yiwuwa kuma yana gabatowa, shugabanninta suka fara shirin ‘yancin kai, ciki har da kafa sabbin tsarin siyasa na cikin gida (tare da gudanar da zaɓe a 1972) da kuma kai gagarumar fafutukar diflomasiyya zuwa ƙasashen waje.[1]

Sojojin PAIGC a wurin binciken soja, 1974.

Kisan Amílcar Cabral: Janairu 1973

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayan shekaru da dama da Portugal ke ƙoƙarin kai hari ko kama Cabral domin rugurguza tsarin shugabancin PAIGC, an kashe Cabral a ranar 20 ga Janairu 1973 a Conakry,[39] ta hannun wasu mambobin PAIGC da suka fusata.[1] PAIGC ta kawar da masu cin amanar,[20] kuma ta sake tsari a ƙarƙashin jagorancin haɗin gwiwa na Aristides Pereira da Luís Cabral, ɗan'uwan jinin Amílcar.[2]

Maimakon rushe ƙungiyar, kisan shugaban PAIGC ya haifar da ɗaya daga cikin manyan hare-harenta, inda ta rushe ko kwace muhimman sansanonin Portugal a arewa da kuma a kan iyakar kudu.[1] Bayan samun sabbin makamai, musamman sabbin makaman harbo jiragen sama daga ƙasa, PAIGC ta fara kai hare-hare da ƙarfi akan Rundunar Jiragen Sama ta Portugal a watan Maris 1973, ta yadda ta “kashe tasirin jiragen sama” da Portugal ke da shi – wanda kafin haka shine babban ƙarfin dabarun Portugal, musamman la'akari da wahalar filin fama na Guinea.[1][2][20] Lokacin da PAIGC ta fara amfani da sabbin makaman harbo jirage daga ƙasa, da manyan bindigogi masu ƙarfi da kuma rokoki (kamar yadda rahotanni suka ce daga ƙasashen kawancen Soviet), ya sa yakin ya “koma na gargajiya” fiye da yadda aka saba da yaƙin ɓaure.[2]

A watan Yuli 1973, artilerin PAIGC ta rushe sansanin Portugal mai ƙarfi na Guileje, wanda a baya wani rundunar ƙwararrun sojojin Turai su 400 ke rike da shi kuma yana zama babban cikas ga sadarwar PAIGC da gwamnatin Guinea-Conakry.[20] A wancan lokacin, dakarun Portugal sun takaita zuwa manyan birane da kuma wasu 'yan sansanoni da aka ƙarfafa kadan,[1] kuma dabarun Portugal sun koma kamar yadda wani jami’in Portugal Major Carlos Fabião ya ce – “riƙewa yadda ya kamata” ("aguentar enquanto fosse possível").[2] Ba ta sake kaddamar da wani hari ba a yaƙin.[20]

Ƙarshen mulkin Portugal a Guinea

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Wani allon tunawa da ayyana 'yancin kai a ranar 24 ga Satumba 1973 a Boé.

'Yancin kai na son kai: Satumba 1973

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A ranakun 23-24 ga Satumba 1973, Majalisar Jama'a ta Kasa (Assembleia Nacional Popular de Guiné) ta gudanar da taro a Madina do Boé, kusa da iyakar Guinea-Conakry, kuma ta ayyana 'yancin kai na Jamhuriyar Guinea-Bissau.[2][40] Majalisar ta kunshi wakilai 120, galibinsu daga PAIGC, wadanda aka nada bayan zaben da PAIGC ta gudanar a 1972 a yankunan da ake kira 'yantattu – wuraren da PAIGC ke iko da su ba tare da tsangwama daga Portugal ba.[2] Yayin taron Boé, Majalisar ta kuma nada Luís Cabral a matsayin shugaban majalisar jaha mai mambobi goma sha biyar.[2]

Spínola da sauran kwamandojin Portugal sun shaida wa manema labarai cewa yankunan da aka 'yanta tatsuniya ce, cewa dukkan yankin yana karkashin ikon sojojin Portugal, kuma an ayyana 'yancin kai ne a wajen Guinea.[2] Duk da haka, kafin karshen shekarar, sabuwar Jamhuriyar Guinea-Bissau ta sami amincewa daga akalla jihohi 57.[41] A ranar 2 ga Nuwamba, Babban Taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya zartar, da kuri'u 93 zuwa bakwai, wani kuduri wanda ya yi maraba da "samun 'yancin kai na mutanen Guinea-Bissau kwanan nan", ya amince da ikon mallakar jihar, ya la'anci ci gaba da kasancewar Portugal a wasu sassan yankin, kuma ya yi kira ga Majalisar Tsaro ta MDD da ta dauki "dukkan matakai masu inganci don dawo da yankin Jamhuriyar".[42]

Yarjejeniyar Algiers: Agusta 1974

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hujjoji da jaridar Portugal Expresso ta buga a 1994 sun nuna cewa gwamnatin Portugal ta gudanar da tattaunawar diflomasiyya ta sirri da PAIGC a London a ranakun 26-27 ga Maris 1974.[2] Sai dai, ci gaban diflomasiyya ya hanzarta a wata mai zuwa, lokacin da aka kifar da gwamnatin a juyin mulkin soja yayin Juyin Juyin Juyin Halitta na 25 ga Afrilu 1974. An kalli yakin a Guinea-Bissau a matsayin wani abu da ya taimaka wajen juyin mulkin da juyin juya halin: matsayinsa na "mafi tsanani, mai lalata, da maras amfani a zahiri" na yakin Portugal guda uku a Afirka ya sanya shi abin kunya ga gwamnatin da ke barin mulki;[2] kuma juyin mulkin Kungiyar Sojojin Hagu (Movimento das Forças Armadas) ce ta shirya shi, wanda babban ginshikinsa "ya fara samuwa" a cikin jami'an sojoji a Guinea-Bissau.[20] Spínola, wanda ya kasance shugaban kokarin Portugal a Guinea-Bissau, shi da kansa ya zama shugaban sabuwar Majalisar Ceton Kasa.

A watan Mayu, sabuwar gwamnatin Portugal ta amince da yin shawarwari da PAIGC.[43] Tare da taimakon Ofishin Harkokin Waje na Birtaniya, an gudanar da tarurruka tsakanin PAIGC da sabuwar gwamnatin Portugal a ranakun 25-31 ga Mayu 1974 a Hyde Park Hotel a London.[2] Tattaunawar ta shiga cikin tsaka mai wuya game da jeri, saboda PAIGC ta dage cewa Portugal ta amince da ayyana 'yancin kai na 1973 a matsayin sharadi don tsagaita wutar da Portugal ke nema.[2][20] Duk da haka, bangarorin sun sake haduwa daga baya a Algiers, Algeria, wanda PAIGC ta dauka a matsayin yanayi mafi "kwanciyar hankali" fiye da London.[2] A halin yanzu, sojojin Portugal a filin yaki a Guinea-Bissau sun kulla alaka ta yau da kullun da sojojin PAIGC; kuma, a ranar 29 ga Yuli, majalisar yankin ta Kungiyar Sojojin Portugal ta fitar da sanarwa wadda ta yaba da "yakin neman 'yanci na kasa" na kin mallaka kuma ta bayyana PAIGC a matsayin "wakili na halal na mutanen Guinea-Bissau".[20] A ranar 26 ga Agusta 1974, a Algiers, Portugal da PAIGC sun sanya hannu kan yarjejeniya inda Portugal ta amince da amincewa da 'yancin kai na Guinea-Bissau da kuma janye dukkan sojoji kafin karshen Oktoba.[44] Haka kuma a watan Agusta, Majalisar Tsaro ta MDD ta bada shawarar shigar Guinea-Bissau cikin MDD.[2]

Mayakan PAIGC suna daga sabuwar tutar Guinea-Bissau a 1974.

Janyewar Portugal: Satumba 1974

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cewar Basil Davidson, tsagaita wuta de facto ta riga ta faru a Guinea-Bissau tun bayan Juyin Juyin Juyin Halitta, wanda sau daya kawai ya taɓa shi ta hanyar musayar wuta mai sauƙi a ranar 27 ga Mayu, wanda "ruɗewar juna" ta haifar.[20] Lallai, janyewar sojojin Portugal ta fara kafin a sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar Algiers, tare da kwashe sansanonin 41 kafin ranar 24 ga Agusta.[20] An dakatar da aikin Kwamandojin Musamman na Afirka 600 a ranar 20 ga Agusta.[20]

Kamar yadda aka tanada a yarjejeniyar Algiers, Portugal ta ba Guinea-Bissau cikakken 'yancin kai a ranar 10 ga Satumba 1974,[45] bayan shekaru goma sha ɗaya na rikicin makamai. Masanin tarihi Norrie McQueen ya lura cewa yarjejeniyar da aiwatar da ita sun kiyaye wani shubuha game da matsayin doka na janyewar – wato, ko ta kasance miƙa mulki ta hanyar shawarwari, ko kuma amincewa da jinkiri na ayyana 'yancin kai na 1973.[2] Duk da haka, lokacin da aka kammala janyewar Portugal daga baya a watan Satumba, 'yancin kai na Guinea-Bissau "an tabbatar da shi fiye da kowane muhawarar siyasa ko doka".[2] Tsibirin Cape Verde da ke makwabtaka, wanda kuma a baya yake na Guinea ta Portugal, ya sami 'yancin kai a 1975 a matsayin Jamhuriyar Cabo Verde.

Bayan nan

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Da samun 'yancin kai, PAIGC ta yi gaggawar faɗaɗa ikonta a duk faɗin ƙasar. An kafa Jihar jam'iyya ɗaya ta Marxist wadda PAIGC ke iko da ita kuma Luís Cabral ke jagoranta.[46] An bai wa sojojin asali waɗanda suka yi aiki tare da Sojojin Portugal zaɓi ko dai su koma gida tare da iyalansu yayin da suke karɓar cikakken albashi har zuwa ƙarshen Disamba 1974, ko kuma su shiga sojojin PAIGC. Jimillar sojoji baƙar fata na Afirka 7,447 waɗanda suka yi aiki a cikin raka'o'in sojojin Portugal na asali, jami'an tsaro, da 'yan bindiga sun yanke shawarar kin shiga sabuwar jam'iyyar mai mulki kuma PAIGC ta kashe su nan da nan bayan da sojojin Portugal suka dakatar da yaƙi.[47][48][49]

Hoto

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Sojojin PAIGC suna ɗora makamai, 1973.
    Sojojin PAIGC suna ɗora makamai, 1973.
  • Kalashnikovs don Hermangono, 1973.
    Kalashnikovs don Hermangono, 1973.
  • Mace soja tana wasan kati, 1973.
    Mace soja tana wasan kati, 1973.
  • Sabbin sojojin PAIGC suna koyon harbi a Ziguinchor, Senegal, 1973.
    Sabbin sojojin PAIGC suna koyon harbi a Ziguinchor, Senegal, 1973.
  • Sojan PAIGC tare da iyalinsa a sansanin soja, 1974.
    Sojan PAIGC tare da iyalinsa a sansanin soja, 1974.
  • Zane-zane da ke nuna sojojin PAIGC a Farim, 1974.
    Zane-zane da ke nuna sojojin PAIGC a Farim, 1974.
  • Kauye da Portuguese suka ƙone, 1974.
    Kauye da Portuguese suka ƙone, 1974.
  • Sojan PAIGC tare da roket mai motsi a sansanin soja na Manten a yankunan da aka 'yanta, 1974.
    Sojan PAIGC tare da roket mai motsi a sansanin soja na Manten a yankunan da aka 'yanta, 1974.
  • Kiran safiya a Hermangono, 1974.
    Kiran safiya a Hermangono, 1974.
  • Bom din Portuguese da bai fashe ba a Canjambari, 1974.
    Bom din Portuguese da bai fashe ba a Canjambari, 1974.
  • Jami'an tsaro dauke da wani mai rauni daga Sara zuwa kan iyakar Senegal, 1974.
    Jami'an tsaro dauke da wani mai rauni daga Sara zuwa kan iyakar Senegal, 1974.

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 Chabal, Patrick (1981). "National Liberation in Portuguese Guinea, 1956-1974". African Affairs. 80 (318): 75–99. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097302. ISSN 0001-9909. JSTOR 721431. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":7" defined multiple times with different content
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 MacQueen, Norrie (2006). "Belated Decolonization and UN Politics against the Backdrop of the Cold War: Portugal, Britain, and Guinea-Bissau's Proclamation of Independence, 1973–1974". Journal of Cold War Studies. 8 (4): 29–56. doi:10.1162/jcws.2006.8.4.29. ISSN 1520-3972. JSTOR 26925950. S2CID 57567303. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":0" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Ly, Aliou (2015-09-01). "Revisiting the Guinea-Bissau liberation war: PAIGC, UDEMU and the question of women's emancipation, 1963–74". Portuguese Journal of Social Science (in Turanci). 14 (3): 361–377. doi:10.1386/pjss.14.3.361_1.
  4. ↑ Duarte Silva, António E. (2006). "Guinea-Bissau: The Cause of Nationalism and the Foundation of PAIGC". African Studies (in Harshen Potugis). 9/10: 142–167. doi:10.4000/cea.1236 – via OpenEdition.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Dhada, Mustafah (1998). "The Liberation War in Guinea-Bissau Reconsidered". The Journal of Military History. 62 (3): 571–593. doi:10.2307/120438. ISSN 0899-3718. JSTOR 120438.
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 Glovsky, David N. (2022). "Collaboration, Survival, and Flight: Fulbe Narratives of Guinea-Bissau's War for Independence, 1961–74". The Journal of African History (in Turanci). 63 (2): 214–230. doi:10.1017/S0021853722000305. ISSN 0021-8537. S2CID 250549977 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  7. ↑ Paul, Christopher; Clarke, Colin P.; Grill, Beth; Dunigan, Molly (2013), "Guinea-Bissau, 1962–1974: Case Outcome: COIN Loss", Paths to Victory: Detailed Insurgency Case Studies, RAND Corporation, pp. 233–240, ISBN 978-0-8330-8109-4, JSTOR 10.7249/j.ctt5hhsjk.30.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 MacQueen, Norrie (2006). "Belated Decolonization and UN Politics against the Backdrop of the Cold War: Portugal, Britain, and Guinea-Bissau's Proclamation of Independence, 1973–1974". Journal of Cold War Studies. 8 (4): 29–56. doi:10.1162/jcws.2006.8.4.29. ISSN 1520-3972. JSTOR 26925950. S2CID 57567303.
  9. ↑ Selcher, Wayne A. (1976). "Brazilian Relations with Portuguese Africa in the Context of the Elusive "Luso-Brazilian Community"". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 18 (1): 25–58. doi:10.2307/174815. ISSN 0022-1937. JSTOR 174815.
  10. ↑ El-Khawas, Mohamed A. (1986). Qaddafi: His Ideology in Theory and Practice. Brattleboro, Vt.: Amana Books. pp. 139–140. ISBN 0-915597-24-1. OCLC 13856558.
  11. ↑ Vince, Natalya (2017). "Mecca of Revolution: Algeria, Decolonization and the Third World Order". Reviews in History (in Turanci). Retrieved 2022-10-12.
  12. ↑ Abbott, Peter (1988). Modern African Wars. Philip Botham, Manuel Ribeiro Rodrigues, H.-R. Heitman, Mike Chappell, Ron Volstad, Paul Hannon. London. p. 12. ISBN 0-85045-728-9. OCLC 15260394.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Djassi Amado, Abel (2020-08-04). "The PAIGC 'Congratulatory' Diplomacy towards Communist States, 1960–1964". Lusotopie (in Turanci). 19 (1): 54–75. doi:10.1163/17683084-12341748. ISSN 1257-0273. S2CID 225354774.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Gleijeses, Piero (1997). "The First Ambassadors: Cuba's Contribution to Guinea-Bissau's War of Independence". Journal of Latin American Studies. 29 (1): 45–88. doi:10.1017/S0022216X96004646. ISSN 0022-216X. JSTOR 158071. S2CID 144904249.
  15. ↑ Williams, John Hoyt (1988-08-01). "Cuba: Havana's Military Machine". The Atlantic (in Turanci). Retrieved 2022-10-12. In Guinea-Bissau, Cuban combat units saw action, fighting with Amilcar Cabral's rebel army against Portuguese colonial rule.
  16. ↑ Lazic, Milorad (2021). "Arsenal of the Global South: Yugoslavia's Military Aid to Nonaligned Countries and Liberation Movements". Nationalities Papers (in Turanci). 49 (3): 428–445. doi:10.1017/nps.2020.6. ISSN 0090-5992. S2CID 233733201 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  17. ↑ Gleijeses, Piero (2002). Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 243.
  18. ↑ Sellström, Tor (2002). Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa: Vol. 2, Solidarity and Assistance 1970–1994 (PDF). Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. p. 53. ISBN 91-7106-430-3. OCLC 41157147.
  19. ↑ Sellström, Tor (2002). Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa: Vol. 2, Solidarity and Assistance 1970–1994 (PDF). Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. p. 59. ISBN 91-7106-430-3. OCLC 41157147.
  20. ↑ 20.00 20.01 20.02 20.03 20.04 20.05 20.06 20.07 20.08 20.09 20.10 Davidson, Basil (1974). "Guinea: Bissau and the Cape Verde Islands: The Transition from War to Independence". Africa Today. 21 (4): 5–20. ISSN 0001-9887. JSTOR 4185452.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Abbott, Peter (1986). Modern African Wars (2): Angola and Mozambique. Bloomsbury USA. p. 34. ISBN 0-85045-843-9.
  22. ↑ Abbott, Peter (1986). Modern African Wars (2): Angola and Mozambique. Bloomsbury USA. p. 10. ISBN 0-85045-843-9.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 Borges Coelho, João Paulo (2002). "African Troops in the Portuguese Colonial Army, 1961–1974: Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique" (PDF). Portuguese Studies Review. 10 (1): 129–150.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Afonso, Aniceto and Gomes, Carlos de Matos, Guerra Colonial (2000), ISBN 972-46-1192-2, p. 340
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Glovsky, David N. (2022). "Collaboration, Survival, and Flight: Fulbe Narratives of Guinea-Bissau's War for Independence, 1961–74". The Journal of African History (in Turanci). 63 (2): 214–230. doi:10.1017/S0021853722000305. ISSN 0021-8537. S2CID 250549977 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Davidson, Basil (1974). "Guinea: Bissau and the Cape Verde Islands: The Transition from War to Independence". Africa Today. 21 (4): 5–20. ISSN 0001-9887. JSTOR 4185452.
  27. ↑ Selcher, Wayne A. (1976). "Brazilian Relations with Portuguese Africa in the Context of the Elusive "Luso-Brazilian Community"". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 18 (1): 25–58. doi:10.2307/174815. ISSN 0022-1937. JSTOR 174815.
  28. ↑ El-Khawas, Mohamed A. (1986). Qaddafi: His Ideology in Theory and Practice. Brattleboro, Vt.: Amana Books. pp. 139–140. ISBN 0-915597-24-1. OCLC 13856558.
  29. ↑ Vince, Natalya (2017). "Mecca of Revolution: Algeria, Decolonization and the Third World Order". Reviews in History (in Turanci). Retrieved 2022-10-12.
  30. ↑ Abbott, Peter (1988). Modern African Wars. Philip Botham, Manuel Ribeiro Rodrigues, H.-R. Heitman, Mike Chappell, Ron Volstad, Paul Hannon. London. p. 12. ISBN 0-85045-728-9. OCLC 15260394.
  31. ↑ Williams, John Hoyt (1988-08-01). "Cuba: Havana's Military Machine". The Atlantic (in Turanci). Retrieved 2022-10-12. In Guinea-Bissau, Cuban combat units saw action, fighting with Amilcar Cabral's rebel army against Portuguese colonial rule.
  32. ↑ Lazic, Milorad (2021). "Arsenal of the Global South: Yugoslavia's Military Aid to Nonaligned Countries and Liberation Movements". Nationalities Papers (in Turanci). 49 (3): 428–445. doi:10.1017/nps.2020.6. ISSN 0090-5992. S2CID 233733201 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  33. ↑ Gleijeses, Piero (2002). Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 243.
  34. ↑ Sellström, Tor (2002). Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa: Vol. 2, Solidarity and Assistance 1970–1994 (PDF). Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. p. 59. ISBN 91-7106-430-3. OCLC 41157147.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Humbaraci, Arslan and Muchnik, Nicole, Portugal's African Wars, New York: Joseph Okpaku Publishing Co., ISBN 0-89388-072-8 (1974), pp. 140-144
  36. ↑ "Guinea Reports Invasion From Sea by Portuguese". The New York Times (in Turanci). 1970-11-23. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-10-12.
  37. ↑ MacQueen, Norrie (2006). "Belated Decolonization and UN Politics against the Backdrop of the Cold War: Portugal, Britain, and Guinea-Bissau's Proclamation of Independence, 1973–1974". Journal of Cold War Studies. 8 (4): 29–56. doi:10.1162/jcws.2006.8.4.29. ISSN 1520-3972. JSTOR 26925950. S2CID 57567303.
  38. ↑ Davidson, Basil (1974). "Guinea: Bissau and the Cape Verde Islands: The Transition from War to Independence". Africa Today. 21 (4): 5–20. ISSN 0001-9887. JSTOR 4185452.
  39. ↑ "Key Anti-Portuguese Leader In West Africa Is Assassinated". The New York Times. 22 January 1973. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  40. ↑ "Guerrillas Declare Independence In a Part of Portuguese Guinea". The New York Times. 28 September 1973. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  41. ↑ Diggs, Charles C. (1973). "Statement on the Proclamation of Independence of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau". Issue: A Journal of Opinion. 3 (3): 30–33. doi:10.2307/1166705. ISSN 0047-1607. JSTOR 1166705.
  42. ↑ 28th Session of the UN General Assembly (1974). "Illegal occupation by Portugese [sic] military forces of certain sectors of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau and acts of aggression committed by them against the people of the Republic". A/Res/3061(Xxviii) (in Turanci).
  43. ↑ Dhada, Mustafah (1998). "The Liberation War in Guinea-Bissau Reconsidered". The Journal of Military History. 62 (3): 571–593. doi:10.2307/120438. ISSN 0899-3718. JSTOR 120438.
  44. ↑ "Portuguese Guinea Wins Independence". The New York Times. 27 August 1974. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  45. ↑ Johnson, Thomas A. (11 September 1974). "Portugal Formally Grants Guinea-Bissau Freedom". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  46. ↑ Embassy of The Republic of Guinea-Bissau - Country Profile: History Archived 2013-02-08 at the Wayback Machine, Diplomatic & Consular Yearbook Online, retrieved 28 May 2011
  47. ↑ Lloyd-Jones, Stewart, and Costa Pinto, António, The last empire: thirty years of Portuguese decolonization, Portland, OR: Intellect Books, ISBN 1-84150-109-3, p. 22
  48. ↑ PAIGC, Jornal Nô Pintcha, 29 November 1980: In a statement in the party newspaper Nô Pintcha (In the Vanguard), a spokesman for the PAIGC revealed that many of the ex-Portuguese indigenous African soldiers that were executed after cessation of hostilities were buried in unmarked collective graves in the woods of Cumerá, Portogole, and Mansabá.
  49. ↑ Munslow, Barry, The 1980 Coup in Guinea-Bissau, Review of African Political Economy, No. 21 (May - Sep., 1981), pp. 109-113

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