Jump to content

Yanayin ƙasa da wadata

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Gross domestic product (nominal per capita) in 2015                   

Yanayin ƙasa da wadata an daɗe ana ganin su a matsayin masu halayen halayen al'ummai. Masana irin su Jeffrey D. Sachs suna jayayya cewa yanayin ƙasa yana da muhimmiyar rawa a ci gaban tattalin arzikin ƙasa.[1]

Misali, al'ummomin da ke zaune a yankunan bakin teku, ko waɗanda ke da damar samun maɓuɓɓugar ruwa da ke kusa, sun fi yawa kuma suna iya kasuwanci tare da kasashe makwabta. Bugu da kari, ƙasashen da ke da yanayin zafi suna fuskantar matsaloli masu yawa kamar cututtuka, yanayin yanayi mai tsanani, da ƙarancin aikin gona.

Wannan rubutun yana goyan bayan gaskiyar cewa yawan radiation na UV yana da mummunar tasiri ga ayyukan tattalin arziki.[2] Akwai bincike da yawa da ke tabbatar da cewa ci gaban sararin samaniya a cikin ƙasashe masu ci gaban tattalin arziki ya bambanta da ƙasashe masu ƙananan matakan ci gaba.[3] Za'a iya lura da alaƙar da ke tsakanin yanayin ƙasa da dukiyar ƙasa ta hanyar nazarin GDP na ƙasa (babban samfurin ƙasa) ga kowane mutum, wanda ke la'akari da fitar da tattalin arzikin ƙasa da yawan jama'a.[4]

Kasashen da suka fi arziki a duniya tare da mafi girman yanayin rayuwa sun kasance waɗanda ke arewacin yankunan da ke buɗewa ga mazaunin ɗan adam - gami da Arewacin Turai, Amurka, da Kanada. A cikin kasashe masu wadata, wadata sau da yawa tana ƙaruwa tare da nisa daga ma'auni.

Masu bincike a Cibiyar Ci Gaban Kasa da Kasa ta Harvard sun gano a shekara ta 2001 cewa kawai tattalin arzikin wurare masu zafi guda biyu - Singapore da Hong Kong - Bankin Duniya ya rarraba su a matsayin masu samun kudin shiga, yayin da duk ƙasashe a cikin yankuna da aka tsara a matsayin masu matsakaici suna da tattalin arzikin matsakaici ko masu samun kudin yabo.[5]

Aunawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yawancin binciken da aka yi kwanan nan suna amfani da babban samfurin cikin gida na kowane mutum, kamar yadda Bankin Duniya da Asusun Kuɗi na Duniya suka auna, a matsayin na'urar kwatanta. Kwatanta tsakanin kasa suna amfani da nasu bayanai, kuma rarrabuwar siyasa kamar jihohi ko larduna sannan su tsara wuraren binciken.

Tsakanin Equator

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin kasashe masu wadata, nesa mai girma daga ma'auni yana da alaƙa da karuwar wadata. Misali, Arewa maso gabashin Amurka ya kasance mai arziki fiye da takwaransa na kudanci da arewacin Italiya ya fi arziki fiye da Yankunan kudanci kasar. Ko da a cikin Afirka ana iya ganin wannan tasirin, saboda al'ummomin da suka fi nesa da ma'auni sun fi arziki. A Afirka, kasashe masu arziki sune uku a kudancin nahiyar, Afirka ta Kudu, Botswana, da Namibia, da ƙasashen Arewacin Afirka. Hakazalika, a Kudancin Amurka, Argentina, Kudancin Brazil, Chile, da Uruguay sun kasance mafi arziki. A cikin Asiya, Indonesia, wanda ke kan ma'auni, yana daga cikin mafi talauci. A cikin Asiya ta Tsakiya, Kazakhstan ta fi wadata fiye da sauran tsoffin Jamhuriyar Soviet waɗanda ke iyakance ta zuwa kudu, kamar Uzbekistan. Sau da yawa irin waɗannan bambance-bambance a ci gaban tattalin arziki suna da alaƙa da batun Arewa-Kudanci.[6] Wannan tsarin yana ɗaukar rarraba duniya zuwa ƙasashe masu arziki na arewa da ƙasashe masu talauci na kudanci.

Bugu da kari, matsalar ci gaban tattalin arziki daban-daban (tsakanin arewacin masana'antu da kudancin gona) suma suna cikin kasashe masu zuwa: [7]

  • Kudancin da Arewa Kazakhstan.
  • Kudancin (Osh, Batken) da arewacin (birni na Bishkek da Chui) yankuna a Kyrgyzstan.
  • Kudancin Italiya da Padania.
  • Flanders da Wallonia a Belgium.
  • Catalonia, Basque Country da sauran Spain.
  • New England da Jihohin kudu maso gabashin Amurka.
  • Poland A da B.
  • Arewa (Gwanin Bahar Rum) da Kudu (Yankin Saharar) a Aljeriya.

Bayani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ɗaya daga cikin na farko da ya bayyana da kuma tantance abin da ya faru shi ne masanin falsafa Faransa Montesquieu, wanda ya tabbatar a cikin karni na 18 cewa "iska mai sanyi yana ƙuntata (sic) iyakar fiber na waje na jiki; wannan yana ƙara ƙarfin su, kuma yana faɗakar da dawowar jini daga matsanancin sassan zuwa zuciya. Yana ƙuntata waɗannan fiber ɗin; saboda haka yana ƙara ƙarfinsu.[8]

Masanin tarihi na karni na 19 Henry Thomas Buckle ya rubuta cewa "yanayi, ƙasa, abinci, da al'amuran yanayi sune manyan abubuwan da ke haifar da ci gaban ilimi - na farko uku a kaikaice, ta hanyar ƙayyade tarawa da rarraba dukiya, kuma na ƙarshe ta hanyar tasiri kai tsaye ga tarawa da rabawa na tunani, ana motsa tunanin da kuma fahimtar lokacin da abubuwan da suka faru na duniya ta waje suke da kyau kuma ban tsoro, fahimtar da aka ƙarfafa kuma tunanin sun kasance ƙananan kuma suna da rauni.

juyin juya halin masana'antu na farko ya nuna farkon bambancin kasashe daban-daban. Alex Trew ya gabatar da samfurin tashi na sararin samaniya wanda ke amfani da bayanai game da ayyukan a karni na 18 a Ingila. Misali ya annabta canje-canje a cikin Rarraba sararin samaniya na aikin gona da masana'antu, waɗanda suka dace da bayanan 1817 da 1861. [9] Don haka, daya daga cikin abubuwan tarihi da ke tasiri ga rashin daidaito na rarraba dukiya shine matakin ci gaban masana'antu, wanda juyin juya halin masana'antu ya haifar.[10]

Bambancin yanayi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masanin ilimin lissafi Jared Diamond ya yi wahayi zuwa gare shi don rubuta aikinsa na lashe Kyautar Pulitzer Guns, Germs, and Steel ta hanyar tambayar da Yali, wani dan siyasa na New Guinea ya yi: me ya sa Turawa suka fi arziki fiye da mutanensa? [11] A cikin wannan littafin, Diamond ya yi jayayya cewa yankin Turai-Asiya (Eurasia) yana da kyau sosai ga sauya al'ummomi daga mafarauta zuwa al'ummomin noma. Wannan nahiyar ta shimfiɗa sosai tare da layin latitude iri ɗaya fiye da kowane ɗayan nahiyoyi. Tunda yana da sauƙin canja wurin nau'in gida tare da wannan latitude fiye da yadda yake motsa shi zuwa yanayin zafi ko sanyi, duk wani nau'in da aka haɓaka a wani latitude za a canja shi a fadin nahiyar a cikin ɗan gajeren lokaci. Ta haka ne mazaunan nahiyar Eurasia sun sami fa'ida mai mahimmanci dangane da ci gaban noma na baya, da kuma tsire-tsire da dabbobi da yawa da za su zabi. Oded Galor, da Ömer Özak suna nazarin bambance-bambance da ke akwai a cikin fifiko a duk faɗin ƙasashe da yankuna, ta amfani da halaye na yanayin gona na masana'antu.[12] Marubutan sun kammala cewa halaye na yanayin zafi suna da tasiri sosai ta hanyar al'adu akan halayyar tattalin arziki, matakin tallafin fasaha da kuma babban birnin mutum.

Bambance-bambance na al'adu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ɗaya daga cikin mahimman abubuwan da ke tabbatar da rashin daidaiton arziki a cikin mahallin sararin samaniya shine gagarumin bambance-bambancen al'adu, ciki har da batutuwan halayen mata da cinikin bayi.  Wani bincike da aka gudanar ya gano cewa zuriyar al'ummomin da suka saba yin noman garma yanzu ba su da daidaiton ka'idojin jinsi.  Shaidar tana da ƙarfi kuma tana dawwama a cikin ƙasashe, yankuna a cikin ƙasashe da ƙabilanci a cikin yankuna.  Wannan bincike yana da mahimmanci musamman dangane da rabon ma'aikata da daidaito a matsayin wata hanya ta asali wacce ke ba da gudummawa ga ci gaban tattalin arziki.  Wani ɓangare na aikin yana ƙaddamar da nazarin cinikin bayi a matsayin al'ada na ci gaban sararin samaniya.  Nathan Nunn, da Leonard Wantchekon sun bincika bambance-bambancen matakan ba da gudummawa a Afirka.  Marubutan sun gano cewa mutanen da aka yiwa kakanninsu hari a lokacin cinikin bayi ba su da aminci a yau.  Marubutan sun yi amfani da dabaru da yawa don tantance amana kuma sun gano cewa hanyar haɗin gwiwa ce.  Bugu da ƙari kuma, an lura cewa ƙaƙƙarfan ƙasa a Afirka ta ba da kariya ga waɗanda aka kai hari a lokacin cinikin bayi.  Ganin cewa cinikin bayi ya hana ci gaban tattalin arziƙin da ya biyo baya, ƙaƙƙarfan ƙasa a Afirka ma yana da tasiri mai kyau a tarihi a kaikaice kan kuɗin shiga[3].  Wani abin da ke ƙayyade ci gaban sararin samaniya shine nisa zuwa iyakokin fasahar masana'antu kafin masana'antu.  An yi la’akari da cewa zai iya ba da gudummawa wajen bullowar al’adun da za su dace da kirkire-kirkire, samar da ilimi da kasuwanci.[4].[13]

Ci gaban fasaha mara daidaito

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Diamond ya lura cewa an tsara fasahohin zamani da cibiyoyi da farko a wani ɗan ƙaramin yanki na arewa maso yammacin Turai, wanda kuma littafin Galor na “Tafiyar ɗan adam: asalin dukiya da rashin daidaito” ke samun goyon baya[1]. Bayan juyin juya halin kimiyya a Turai a karni na 16, yanayin rayuwa ya karu kuma dukiya ta fara yaduwa zuwa matsakaicin matsayi. Wannan ya haɗa da dabarun noma, injina, da magunguna. Waɗannan fasahohi da ƙira sun bazu zuwa yankunan da Turai ta yi wa mulkin mallaka waɗanda suka kasance na yanayi iri ɗaya, kamar Arewacin Amurka da Ostiraliya. Yayin da waɗannan yankuna su ma suka zama cibiyoyin ƙirƙira, an ƙara haɓaka wannan son zuciya. Fasaha daga motoci zuwa layukan wutar lantarki galibi ana tsara su don yankuna masu sanyi da bushewa, tunda yawancin abokan cinikinsu sun fito daga waɗannan yankuna.

Littafin Guns, Germs, and Steel ya ci gaba da rubuta sakamakon da aka kera na fasahohin da aka kera don masu hannu da shuni, wanda ke sa su zama masu arziƙi kuma ta haka za su sami damar samar da ci gaban fasaha. Ya lura cewa Arewa mai nisa ba koyaushe ta kasance mafi arziki a latitude; Har zuwa ’yan ƙarnuka kaɗan da suka wuce, bel ɗin da ya fi kowa arziki ya taso daga Kudancin Turai har zuwa Gabas ta Tsakiya, Arewacin Indiya da Kudancin China, wanda kuma aka yi nuni da shi a cikin littafin Mokyr “The lever of riches: Technological Creative and Economic Development[1]. Canji mai ban mamaki a cikin fasaha, farawa da jiragen ruwa masu tafiya zuwa teku kuma ya ƙare a juyin juya halin masana'antu, ya ga bel ɗin da ya fi ci gaba ya koma arewa zuwa arewacin Turai, Sin, da Amurka. Arewacin Rasha ya zama kasa mai karfi, yayin da kudancin Indiya ya zama matalauta da mulkin mallaka. Diamond ya bayar da hujjar cewa irin wadannan sauye-sauye masu ban mamaki sun nuna cewa rabon arzikin da ake samu a halin yanzu ba wai kawai saboda abubuwan da ba za su iya canzawa ba kamar yanayi ko launin fata, yana mai nuni da bullar noma a farkon Mesopotamiya a matsayin shaida.

Diamond ya kuma lura da tasirin ra'ayoyi a ci gaban fasahar kiwon lafiya, yana mai cewa ƙarin kuɗin bincike yana shiga cikin warkar da cututtukan mutanen arewa.

Cutar

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsuntsaye, sauro, da beraye, waɗanda ke ci gaba da kasancewa mahimman cututtukan cututtuka, suna amfana daga yanayin zafi da zafi mafi girma.[14] An daɗe ana samun belin zazzabin cizon sauro wanda ya mamaye sassan equatorial na duniya; cutar tana da kisa musamman ga yara a ƙarƙashin shekaru biyar. Musamman kusan ba zai yiwu ba ga yawancin nau'ikan dabbobi na arewa su bunƙasa saboda kasancewar tsetse fly.[15] Bleakley ya sami shaidar da ta dace cewa kawar da ankylostomosis a Kudancin Amurka ya ba da gudummawa ga karuwar samun kudin shiga wanda ya dace da ayyukan kawarwa.[16]

Jared Diamond ya danganta domestication na dabbobi a Turai da Asiya da ci gaban cututtukan da suka ba wadannan ƙasashe damar cinye mazaunan wasu nahiyoyi. Haɗin kusa da mutane a Eurasia tare da dabbobinsu na gida ya ba da hanyar yaduwar cututtuka da sauri. Mazaunan ƙasashe da ke da ƙananan nau'o'in gida ba a taɓa fallasa su ga irin wannan cututtuka ba, don haka, aƙalla a nahiyoyin Amurka, sun mutu ga cututtukan da aka gabatar daga Eurasia. Wadannan tasirin an tattauna su sosai a littafin William McNeill Plagues and Peoples . [17] Bayan haka, Ola Olsson, da Douglas A. Hibbs suna jayayya cewa yanayin ƙasa da na farko na yanayin rayuwa suna da tasiri sosai a kan wurin da kuma lokacin sauyawa zuwa aikin gona mai zaman kansa, tsarin zamantakewa mai rikitarwa kuma, a ƙarshe, zuwa samar da masana'antu na zamani.[18]

Binciken Harvard na 2001 ya ambaci yawan Mutuwar jarirai a matsayin wani abu; tunda yawan haihuwa yawanci yana ƙaruwa a cikin diyya, mata na iya jinkirta shigarsu cikin ma'aikata don kula da ƙananan yaransu. Ilimi na yaran da suka tsira ya zama da wahala, yana ci gaba da sake zagayowar talauci. Bloom, Canning da Fink suna jayayya cewa lafiya a ƙuruciya yana shafar yawan aiki a lokacin manya.

Rashin iyaka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kasashen da ba su da damar kai tsaye zuwa teku - wanda aka fi sani da ƙasashe masu ƙuntatawa - suna fuskantar ƙalubalen tsari wanda ke hana Ci gaban tattalin arziki su. Bincike ya nuna cewa kasashe masu tasowa (LLDCs) yawanci suna fuskantar ci gaban tattalin arziki a hankali, fitarwa ƙasa, kuma suna da ƙarancin Kudin shiga na kowane mutum idan aka kwatanta da ƙasashen bakin teku. Wannan ya faru ne saboda farashin sufuri mafi girma, dogaro da kasashe masu wucewa makwabta, da kuma fallasa rashin kwanciyar hankali na siyasa da rashin ingancin gudanarwa a fadin iyakoki.[19]

Bugu da ƙari, ƙasashe masu ƙuntataccen ƙasa galibi ana yanke su daga bangarorin tattalin arziki kamar yawon shakatawa na duniya, cinikin teku, da masana'antun albarkatun bakin teku. Wadannan rashin amfani suna ba da gudummawa ga babban hukunci na ci gaba: bincike na kasa da kasa ya gano cewa ƙasashe masu ƙetare sun karu da matsakaicin kashi 1.5 a hankali a kowace shekara fiye da irin waɗannan ƙasashen bakin teku, koda bayan lissafin bambance-bambance a matakan saka hannun jari da samun kudin shiga.[20]

Sauran

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • A cikin "Climate and Scale in Economic Growth," William A. Masters da Margaret S. McMillan na Jami'ar Purdue da Jami'ar Tufts sun yi la'akari da cewa bambancin ya kasance ne saboda tasirin sanyi a kara yawan haihuwa.
  • Hernando Zuleta, na Universidad del Rosario, ya ba da shawarar cewa inda sauye-sauyen fitarwa ya fi zurfi, watau yankunan da ke fuskantar hunturu, adanawa ya fi bayyana, wanda ke haifar da karɓar ko ƙirƙirar fasahar babban birnin.
  • Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, da James A. Robinson na MIT sun yi jayayya a cikin 2001 cewa a wuraren da Turawa ke fuskantar yawan mace-mace, ba za su iya daidaitawa ba kuma suna iya kafa cibiyoyin cin zarafi. Wadannan cibiyoyin ba su ba da kariya ga dukiyar masu zaman kansu ko dubawa da ma'auni game da ƙwacewar gwamnati ba.[21] Sun tabbatar da cewa bayan sarrafa tasirin cibiyoyin, ƙasashe a Afirka ko waɗanda ke kusa da ma'auni ba su da ƙananan kudaden shiga. David Albouy ya yi jayayya da wannan aikin, wanda ya yi jayana cewa yawan mace-mace na Turai a cikin binciken ba daidai ba ne, yana goyon bayan ƙarshen ba daidai ba.
  • Marubutan "Gidan ƙwaƙwalwa, yanayin kwakwalwa, yanayi, da injunan lokaci" sun tabbatar da cewa yanayin sanyi yana ƙara girman kwakwalwa, wanda ke haifar da bambancin hankali.
  • Dao, N.T. da Davila, J. suna jayayya cewa lokacin da wasu dalilai na ƙasa suka dace, tattalin arziki na iya kulle a cikin Malthusian stagnation kuma ba zai taɓa bunkasa ba.[22]

Tasirin dumamar duniya akan wadata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin wata takarda ta 2006 da ke tattauna tasirin tasirin dumamar duniya akan wadata, John K. Horowitz na Jami'ar Maryland ya yi hasashen cewa karuwar zafin jiki na digiri 2 na Fahrenheit (2 °F (1 °C) ° C) a duk ƙasashe zai haifar da raguwar kashi 2 zuwa 6 cikin dari a cikin GDP na duniya, tare da mafi kyawun kimantawa na kusan kashi 3.5. [23] Tsohon Sakatare Janar na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya Ban Ki-moon ya nuna damuwa cewa dumamar duniya za ta kara talauci da ke akwai a Afirka. Akwai shaidu masu yawa cewa rashin daidaito tsakanin masu arziki da matalauta a cikin ƙasashe yanzu ya wuce rashin daidaito a tsakanin ƙasashe. Kasashe masu fitarwa da yawa suna da alaƙa da iyakokin duniya, ba tare da la'akari da inda suke zaune ba. An lura cewa dukiyar mutum ta bayyana fiye da dukiyar ƙasa tushen hayaki.

Singapore

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin wata hira ta 2009 don New Perspective's Quarterly, mahaifin da ya kafa Singapore Lee Kuan Yew ya danganta abubuwa biyu ga nasarar kasar. Ɗaya shine haƙuri na kabilanci, ɗayan kuma shine sanyaya iska, wanda ya bayyana a matsayin wani muhimmin abu da ya sa wayewa ya yiwu a cikin wurare masu zafi.[24] Lee ya yi jayayya cewa sanyaya iska ta ba mutane damar yin aiki a tsakar rana, wanda a baya ya kasance da wahala saboda yanayin zafi, kuma ya sanya su inda ma'aikatan gwamnati ke aiki.

Dubi kuma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Rarraba Arewa da Kudu
  • Ƙasa (tattalin arziki)
  • Jerin ƙasashe ta GDP (na farko)
  • Yanayin ci gaba
  • Matakan samun kudin shiga da fitarwa na kasa
  • Cututtukan wurare masu zafi
  • Taswirar talauci
  1. ↑ Gallup, John Luke; Sachs, Jeffrey D.; Mellinger, Andrew D. (August 1999). "Geography and Economic Development". International Regional Science Review. 22 (2): 179–232. doi:10.1177/016001799761012334. ISSN 0160-0176. S2CID 11559764.
  2. ↑ Andersen, Thomas Barnebeck; Dalgaard, Carl-Johan; Selaya, Pablo (2016-02-23). "Climate and the Emergence of Global Income Differences". The Review of Economic Studies. 83 (4): 1334–1363. doi:10.1093/restud/rdw006. ISSN 0034-6527.
  3. ↑ Henderson, J Vernon; Squires, Tim; Storeygard, Adam; Weil, David (2017-09-11). "The Global Distribution of Economic Activity: Nature, History, and the Role of Trade1". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 133 (1): 357–406. doi:10.1093/qje/qjx030. ISSN 0033-5533. PMC 6889963. PMID 31798191.
  4. ↑ Sachs, Jeffrey D. (2001). "The Geography of Poverty and Wealth". Scientific American. 284 (3): 70–5. Bibcode:2001SciAm.284c..70S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0301-70. PMID 11234509.
  5. ↑ Sachs, Jeffrey (February 2001). "Tropical Underdevelopment". NBER Working Paper Series. Cambridge, MA. doi:10.3386/w8119. S2CID 346806.
  6. ↑ "North-South Problem". www.mofa.go.jp. Retrieved 2023-05-27.
  7. ↑ Alesina, Alberto; Devleeschauwer, Arnaud; Easterly, William; Kurlat, Sergio; Wacziarg, Romain (January 2003). "Fractionalization". NBER Working Paper Series. Cambridge, MA. doi:10.3386/w9411.
  8. ↑ KRIESEL, KARL MARCUS (September 1968). "Montesquieu: Possibilistic Political Geographer". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 58 (3): 557–574. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1968.tb01652.x. ISSN 0004-5608.
  9. ↑ Trew, Alex (October 2014). "Spatial takeoff in the first industrial revolution". Review of Economic Dynamics. 17 (4): 707–725. doi:10.1016/j.red.2014.01.002. ISSN 1094-2025.
  10. ↑ Oddy, Nicholas (2016). "Industrial Revolution". The Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Design. doi:10.5040/9781472596161-bed-online-042. ISBN 9781472596161.
  11. ↑ King, Arthur B. (July 2001). "Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies by Jared Diamond". The Guthrie Journal. 70 (3): 119. doi:10.3138/guthrie.70.3.119. ISSN 0882-696X. S2CID 258662777 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  12. ↑ Galor, Oded; Özak, Ömer (2016-10-01). "The Agricultural Origins of Time Preference". American Economic Review. 106 (10): 3064–3103. doi:10.1257/aer.20150020. ISSN 0002-8282. PMC 5541952. PMID 28781375.
  13. ↑ Özak, Ömer (2018-03-14). "Distance to the pre-industrial technological frontier and economic development". Journal of Economic Growth. 23 (2): 175–221. doi:10.1007/s10887-018-9154-6. ISSN 1381-4338. S2CID 254656955 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  14. ↑ Prillaman, McKenzie (2022-08-12). "Climate change is making hundreds of diseases much worse". Nature (in Turanci). doi:10.1038/d41586-022-02167-z. PMID 35962039 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 251540065 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  15. ↑ Muriithi, I. E. "The Impact and Implementation of Theileriosis and Trypanosomyasis on Livestock Production in Africa". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
  16. ↑ Bleakley, H. (2007-02-01). "Disease and Development: Evidence from Hookworm Eradication in the American South". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 122 (1): 73–117. doi:10.1162/qjec.121.1.73. ISSN 0033-5533. PMC 3800113. PMID 24146438.
  17. ↑ "World History Connected: Review of Plagues and Peoples". Archived from the original on 2008-10-06. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
  18. ↑ Olsson, Ola; Hibbs, Douglas A. (May 2005). "Biogeography and long-run economic development". European Economic Review. 49 (4): 909–938. doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2003.08.010. ISSN 0014-2921. S2CID 15773734.
  19. ↑ Faye, Michael L.; McArthur, John W.; Sachs, Jeffrey D.; Snow, Thomas (2004-03-01). "The Challenges Facing Landlocked Developing Countries". Journal of Human Development. 5 (1): 31–68. doi:10.1080/14649880310001660201. ISSN 1464-9888.
  20. ↑ Mackellar, Landis; Wörgötter, Andreas; Wörz, Julia (2000-01-01). "Economic Development Problems of Landlocked Countries". irihs.ihs.ac.at (in Turanci). Retrieved 2025-04-16.
  21. ↑ "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation". Archived from the original on 2007-03-02. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
  22. ↑ Dao, Nguyen Thang; Dávila, Julio (September 2013). "Can geography lock a society in stagnation?". Economics Letters. 120 (3): 442–446. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2013.05.031. ISSN 0165-1765.
  23. ↑ "The Income-Temperature Relationship in a Cross-Section of Countries and its Implications for Global Warming" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-08. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
  24. ↑ Lee, Katy (2015-03-23). "Singapore's founding father thought air conditioning was the secret to success". Vox (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-08-01.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yanayin_ƙasa_da_wadata&oldid=690231"