Yaren Neverver
| Yaren Neverver | |
|---|---|
| |
| Lamban rijistar harshe | |
| ISO 639-3 |
lgk |
| Glottolog |
ling1265[1] |
Neverver (Nevwervwer), wanda aka fi sani da Lingarak, yare ne na yankin Oceanic. Ba a taɓa magana da shi a lardin Malampa, a tsakiyar Malekula, Vanuatu . Sunayen ƙauyuka a tsibirin Malekula inda ake magana da Neverver sune Lingarakh da Limap .
Neverver yare ne mai barazana, kuma karamar hukuma da ke kula da ita ce ke kare harsunan asali da kuma tabbatar da su. Kashi sittin cikin dari na yara suna iya magana da wannan yaren.[2] Koyaya, ana tura harsunan da suka fi dacewa a cikin al'umma, kamar Bislama, Turanci, da Faransanci don amfani da su a cikin waɗannan al'ummomin harsuna.[3] Bislama shine yaren da aka fi amfani dashi a cikin wannan yankin. Turanci da Faransanci sune harsuna biyu mafi ban sha'awa a cikin wannan yankin saboda suna da alaƙa da tsarin makaranta. A cikin Lardin Malampa, Turanci da Faransanci sune manyan harsuna da ake koyarwa don ilimi. Ana amfani da Turanci don ma'amaloli na kasuwanci a cikin wannan yankin kuma yana taimakawa wajen samar da kudaden shiga a cikin yankin.[2] Wannan ya faru ne saboda gaskiyar cewa kafin wannan lardin ya sami 'yancin kai a shekarar 1980 an mallake su da mulkin mallaka na Faransa da Ingila. Gabaɗaya, akwai masu magana da Jam'iyyar Neverver 550 kawai.
Neverver ya fada ƙarƙashin reshen Oceanic na dangin yaren Austronesian (bisa ga kwatanta cognates, morphology, phonology da sauran alamun shaida), wanda shine dangin yare na biyu mafi girma a duniya. Akwai yare guda biyu na yaren Neverver; Mindu da Wuli .
Fasahar sauti
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Sautin da aka yi amfani da shi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Neverver ya ƙunshi jimlar sautin sautin 27 a wurare biyar daban-daban na magana da hanyoyi daban-daban guda shida na magana. Wani sanannen fasalin Neverver shine cewa wasu sassan murya sun bayyana ne kawai a cikin tsari na farko. Wani fasalin consonants na Neverver shine cewa wasu suna da takwaransa na geminate: /pː/, /tː/,/kː/, -mː/, *nː/, [lː/, +rː/, da /sː/. Ana ba da sautin a cikin teburin da ke ƙasa ta amfani da Harshen Harshen Harkokin Kasa da Kasa (IPA).
| Biyuwa | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hanci | m | n | ŋ | ||
| Bayanan da aka yi amfani da su Africates |
fili | p | t | k | |
| da aka haifa kafin a yi aure | ᵐb | ⁿd | ⁿdʒ | ᵑɡ | |
| Rashin jituwa | β | s | ɣ | ||
| Ayyuka | fili | r | |||
| da aka haifa kafin a yi aure | ᵐᵇʙ | ⁿᵈr | |||
| Ƙididdigar | l | j | w | ||
Abubuwan da aka bayyana, gami da fricatives /β/ da /ɣ/, da kuma pre-nasal trills /mbę/ da /ndr/ suna cikin matsayi na ƙarshe a cikin magana mai sauri. Daga cikin matasa masu magana, ƙwayoyin da aka yi amfani da su sun zama hanci mai sauƙi a matsayi na ƙarshe.
Babban /p/ ya zama murya mara murya a gaban wasula /u/ .[2]
Sautin sautin
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Neverver ya ƙunshi jimlar sautin sautin takwas, sautin sautuna biyar na yau da kullun da diphthongs uku. Koyaya, akwai shaidar cewa /y/ da /ø/ sun bambanta tsakanin tsofaffin masu magana, suna kawo jimlar adadin wasula zuwa goma ga wasu masu magana. Ana ba da sautin sautin a cikin teburin da ke gefen hagu na IPA. Ana kuma bayar da jerin diphthongs a cikin teburin da ke dama tare da misalai.
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Tsarin sautin
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Neverver yana ba da izini ga syllabs tare da har zuwa ɗaya a farkon da kuma a cikin coda, gami da syllabs da kawai tsakiya. Wannan yana nufin tsarin sassan shine (C) V (C). An ba da misali na yiwuwar tsarin syllable a cikin teburin da ke ƙasa inda sassan da suka dace suke cikin bold:
| Tsarin | Halin da aka yi | Fassara ta Turanci |
|---|---|---|
| V | /ei/ | "shi" |
| CV | /nau/ | "Tushen" |
| VC | /i.Ƙari ga haka.ŋis.il/ | "ya yi murmushi" |
| CVC | /tox/ | "kasancewa" |
Damuwa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Damuwa a Neverver na yau da kullun ne kuma ba ya bambanta. Gabaɗaya yana faɗuwa a kan syllable guda ɗaya na kalmomin monosyllabic da kuma syllable na ƙarshe na kalmomin multisyllabic. A cikin mahadi, ana bi da kowane tushe daban don haka ana ba da damuwa ga kowannensu yana bin tsarin damuwa gaba ɗaya. Misalan aikin damuwa a cikin kalmomi na yau da kullun an ba su a cikin teburin da ke ƙasa.
| Misali | Fassara ta Turanci |
|---|---|
| [Naus] | "Ruwa" |
| ['auka da kuma] | "ruwa" |
| [ni.'te.rix] | "yaro" |
Kalmomin suna bin tsarin damuwa wanda ya bambanta da tsarin damuwa gaba ɗaya. A cikin kalmomi, damuwa ta faɗi a kan syllable na farko na maɓallin aikatau, ba tare da la'akari da ƙaddamarwa ba; duk da haka, a cikin maganganun da suka dace, ana sanya damuwa a kan batun / yanayin prefix da kuma a kan sylable na farko da maɓallin kalma. A lokacin reduplication, ana ba da damuwa ta farko ga misali na farko na reduplication. Misalan sanya damuwa a cikin kalmomi, lokuta na reduplication, da maganganun da ke ƙasa an ba su a cikin teburin da ke ƙasa.
| Misali | Fassara ta Turanci |
|---|---|
| [shi ne.'ɣam] | "ɗaya" |
| [Isu] | " (s) zai zo" |
| [na.m.'liŋ.liŋ] | "za mu bar (ta) " |
| [nit.'mal.ma.lu] | "mun warwatse" |
| [Kamar yadda] | "Ku tafi!" |
| [Suna da yawa] | "Ka zo!" |
Wakilin da alamun mutum
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Neverver yana amfani da nau'o'i daban-daban na suna da suna. Akwai manyan nau'o'i uku: na kowa, na sirri, da na gida. Har ila yau, akwai wani nau'i na huɗu na suna wanda ya haɗu da siffofi na tsarin suna Neverver tare da kaddarorin manyan nau'ikan suna guda uku. Akwai nau'o'i uku na wakilin a cikin Neverver: wakilan sirri masu zaman kansu, masu ƙayyadewa, da wakilan mallaka. Kamar yawancin harsunan Austronesian, a cikin Neverver bambancin hadawa / na musamman ya shafi mutum na farko na jam'i. Sunayen mutum a cikin Neverver sun haɗa da sunayen sirri da kuma kalmomin dangi.
Ma'anar suna
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Wakilan sirri masu zaman kansu
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Wakilan sirri masu zaman kansu suna ƙunshe da bambance-bambance na mutum da lambobi. Wannan ya haɗa da zaɓi na i-, wanda zai iya nuna ko dai batun ko abu. Kodayake wannan na farko i- zaɓi ne tare da wakilan, wajibi ne tare da tambayar mutum. Misali, I-Sikh yana nufin 'wanda'. Wakilan sirri masu zaman kansu galibi suna nufin ƙungiyoyi masu rai, sai dai idan a wasu yanayi irin su gine-gine masu tunani. Da ke ƙasa akwai teburin da ke nuna alamar wakilin mai zaman kanta: [2]
| Mai banbanci | Yawancin mutane | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Mutum na farko | Haɗuwa | (i-) na | (i-) git |
| Na Musamman | (i-) nam ~ (gu) mam | ||
| Mutum na biyu | (i-) okh | (i-) gam | |
| Mutum na uku | ei | Adr | |
Batun / yanayi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Bugu da ƙari, duk batutuwa, duka suna da suna, ana ambaton su tare da batun / yanayin da aka haɗa da maɓallin aikatau a cikin real tense. Wadannan jigogi / yanayi sun bambanta da sunayen mutum masu zaman kansu saboda akwai ƙarin bambanci biyu ban da bambancin mutum ɗaya da jam'i. Abubuwan da ke tattare da batun / yanayi suma wajibi ne a duk abubuwan da aka gina, ba kamar sunayen masu zaman kansu ba. Da ke ƙasa akwai tebur da ke nuna batun / yanayin: [2]
| Mai banbanci | Biyu | Yawancin mutane | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mutum na farko | Haɗuwa | ni- | nir (i) - | ba tare da izini ba - |
| Na Musamman | nar (i) - | nat (i) - | ||
| Mutum na biyu | ku- | kar (i) - | Kat (i) - | |
| Mutum na uku | i- | ar (i) - | a (i) - | |
Teburin ya nuna cewa nau'in mutum na 3 ba daidai ba ne.
Jima'i
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin Neverver akwai sunayen maza da mata, tare da vinang yana nuna mace da mang yana nuna namiji. Wadannan za a iya tilasta su gyara tare da nunawa ko sashi na dangi. Hakanan ana iya bayyana jinsi ta amfani da wakilan mutum na uku. A cikin Neverver, lokacin da akwai mahalarta mutane biyu da ke da alaƙa da jinsi daban-daban, ana bayyana ɗayan tare da nau'in jinsi kuma ana iya sanya ɗayan tare da zaɓi mai tsaka-tsaki na jinsi. Hanyar da aka tsara ta jinsi don bayyana mata mai shiga a matsayin batun ilimin lissafi na sashi na farko, an sanya shi a cikin batun / yanayin prefix i-. Idan namiji ya zama batun ilimin lissafi a cikin sashi na gaba, ana rarrabe wannan tare da sunan namiji mai suna mang. Misali: [2] A cikin misalin da ke sama akwai namiji da mace da ke shiga. Mataki / yanayin prefix i- yana nuna cewa mace ita ce batun sashi na farko. Lokacin da batun ya canza zuwa namiji, ana amfani da sunan mang don nuna wannan canjin. Don nuna cewa mace ta sake zama abu, wakilin mutum na 3 ei ya bayyana wannan.
Abubuwan da ke ƙayyadewa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Prefixes suna samun masu ƙayyadewa a cikin Neverver. Yawancin waɗannan suna farawa da prefix na mallaka t-. A cikin Neverver, masu ƙayyadewa masu mallaka suna nufin masu mallakar mutane ne kawai, kuma ana amfani da wani tsari daban don bayyana masu mallakar da ba mutane ba. Da ke ƙasa akwai teburin da ke nuna tsarin ƙayyadewa: [2]
| Mai banbanci | Ba na musamman ba | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Mutum na farko | Haɗuwa | (t-) na | (t-) git |
| Na Musamman | (t-) nam ~ (t-) mam | ||
| Mutum na biyu | (t-) bijimi | (t-) gam | |
| Mutum na uku | titi ~ ei | titi-dr ~ adr | |
3. Wakilan da ke da alaƙa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Har ila yau, prefixes suna samun sunayen sarauta a cikin Neverver. Sunayen mallaka sun ƙunshi prefix mai suna a- da prefix mai mallaka t-, waɗanda duka suna haɗe da ma'anar ma'anar (mai zaman kansa). Bugu da ƙari, lokacin da aka haɗa prefix ɗin nominalising, wakilin mai mallaka na iya zama shugaban kalmar da kanta. Da ke ƙasa akwai teburin da ke nuna alamar mai mallaka: [2]
| Mai banbanci | Ba na musamman ba | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Mutum na farko | Haɗuwa | a-t-na | a-t-git |
| Na Musamman | a-t-nam | ||
| Mutum na biyu | a-t-okh | a-t-gam | |
| Mutum na uku | a cikin | a-titi-dr | |
Kamar yadda teburin ya nuna, nau'in mutum na 3 yana amfani da nau'in titi mai zaman kansa maimakon nau'in wakilin mutum mai zaman kansa. Misali, at-t-na na nufin 'na' kuma at-titi-dr na nufin 'su'.
Sunayen mutum
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin Neverver, sunayen mutum suna ɗaya daga cikin manyan nau'o'i uku, tare da sunayen gama gari da sunayen gida. Wadannan sunayen mutum na iya haɗawa da sunayen sirri da kalmomin dangi na mutum. Yawancin sunayen mata masu kyau suna da alamar gargajiya tare da morphemes le- ko li; duk da haka, babu wani morpheme da ke da alaƙa da sunayen maza na gargajiya. Neverver kuma yana da ƙananan kalmomin dangi waɗanda zasu iya bayyana dangantakar iyali da sauran dabarun guje wa suna.[2]
Rubuce-rubuce
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Tsarin kalmomi na asali
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Tsarin kalma na asali na Neverver shine SVO, gami da maganganu marasa ma'ana, masu ma'ana da masu ma'anar. Misalan jimloli tare da maganganu masu wucewa, masu wucewa da kuma maganganu marasa wucewa an ba su a ƙasa.
Batun
Nibisbokh
rat
ang
ANA
Verb (Transitive)
I-te
3:REAL:SG-cut
Abu na farko
noron
ganye
Nisharo
taro
Nibisbokh ang i-te noron nidaro.
rat ANA 3:REAL:SG-cut leaf taro
"Rats ya yanke ganyen taro".Batun
Niterikh
yaro
Verb (Ditransitive)
I-sus-ikh
3:AYI:SG-ask-APPL
Abu na farko
Yana zaune
uwa
titi
3:POSS:SG
Abu na Biyu
ni-kkan-ian
NSF: lowercase; " title="nominalizing prefix">NPR-eat-NSF
Niterikh i-sus-ikh nida titi ni-kkan-ian
yaro 3:REAL:SG-ask-APPL uwa 3:POSS:SG NPR-eat-NSF
"Yaron ya nemi mahaifiyarsa ta ba shi abinci".Kasuwanci
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin Neverver, akwai hanyoyi da yawa don bayyana mallaka. Haɗin tsakanin wani abu da abin da ya ƙunshi na iya yin bambanci wajen bayyana mallaka.[2] Akwai manyan nau'ikan mallaka guda bakwai a cikin harshen Neverver. Wannan ya hada da: [2]
- Rashin Mutum
- Abubuwan da ke cikin gida ba tare da mai canzawa ba
- Mallaka mai haɗawa tare da mai canzawa
- Sashe na dangi ba tare da mai canzawa ba
- Sashe mai alaƙa tare da mai canzawa
- Adadin dangi ba tare da mai canzawa ba
- Adadin dangi tare da mai canzawa
Wasu misalai na mallaka daga Barbour sune: [2]
- Samun mutum: nida (mahaifiyata) t-na "mahaifiyarta"
- Haɗin haɗin gwiwa tare da mai canzawa: gwauruwa (window) an (nmod) nakhmal (house) ang (the) "The window of the house"
- Adadin dangi tare da mai canzawa: nimokhmokh-tro (tsohuwar mace) an (nmod) i-ru (biyu) ang (the) "tsoffin mata / mata biyu"
Maimaitawa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Reduplication na kalmomi yana faruwa a cikin harshen Neverver. Suna faruwa tare da aikatau a cikin wannan harshe. Ana sake maimaita kalmomi ta hanyar sake maimaitawa da maimaita dukan kalmar ko wani ɓangare na ita. Misali, kalmar 'tukh' na Neverver tana nufin yajin aiki, lokacin da aka ninka shi zuwa 'tukh tukh' yana samar da kalmar don bugawa.[2]
Ana amfani da Reduplication Constraint One a cikin Neverver. Wannan shine lokacin da ake sake maimaita prefix na kalma yana bin tsarin aikatau na yau da kullun.[2] Teburin da ke ƙasa yana nuna misalai na wannan: [2]
| Tushen Mai Sauƙi | Rashin da aka sake maimaitawa |
|---|---|
| CVte 'ya buga' |
CV-CVtete 'yaƙi' |
| CVCtas 'scrach' |
CVC-CVCtas-tas 'sharpen' |
| CVCVmalu 'ya bar' |
CVC-CVCVmal-malu 'yawarya' |
| CCVtnga 'bincike' |
CV-CCVta-tnga 'bincike' (tsawon lokaci) |
| CCVCsber 'haɓaka' |
CV-CCVCse-sber 'taɓawa' |
Tsarin da ya fi amfani da Reduplication a Neverver shine samun kalma mai mahimmanci daga aikin aikatau. Ana iya ganin wasu misalai na wannan a cikin teburin da ke ƙasa.[2]
| Tushen | Reduplicant |
|---|---|
| tur 'tsaya' | turtur 'tsaya' |
| A cikin 'rabuwa' | A cikinta akwai 'ya karyewa' |
| jing 'kwantar da hankali' | jingjing 'ya kwanta' |
Akwai sake maimaitawa ba bisa ka'ida ba a cikin Neverver wanda ba ya bin tsarin kalma na yau da kullun. A cewar Julie Barbour, kalmar vlem, wanda ke nufin "ku zo", ba ta bin wannan tsari ba.[2] Zai kasance a nuna cewa sake maimaita wannan kalma zai zama ve-vlem. Julie Barbour ta yi amfani da misalin jumlar "Ari vle-vle-vlem" wanda ke fassara zuwa "Sun zo kusa da kusanci".[2]
Ƙin yarda
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Rashin amincewa wani tsari ne na ilimin lissafi wanda ke nuna saɓani ga wani ɓangare na ko jimlar gaba ɗaya.[4] A cikin Lingarak, maganganu marasa kyau yawanci sun saba wa tsarin aikatau.
Ƙaddamar da ƙin yarda
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Ana musanta sassan kalma a cikin Lingarak ta amfani da ƙarancin si.[5] Wannan mummunan abu koyaushe yana faruwa bayan aikatau. Don haka, ana kiran kwayar cutar kwayar cutar ta bayan magana. Ana iya amfani da shi don ƙaryata waɗannan gine-gine:
- Magana mai bayyanawa - sassan da ake amfani da su don bayyana maganganu.[6]
- Sharuɗɗan da ke da mahimmanci - sassan da ake amfani da su don ba da umarni.[7] Ana iya lura da wannan a cikin misali 15 da ke ƙasa.
- Halin gaskiya - yanayin harshe, inda aka tabbatar da cewa gaskiyar ce kuma a bayyane take, kuma ana iya tallafawa da shaidu.[8] Hanyoyin aikatau na ainihi yawanci sun haɗa da lokacin da ya gabata.
- Halin da ba daidai ba - yanayin harshe, inda aka tabbatar da cewa ra'ayin gaskiya ne, kuma ba a sauƙaƙe shi da shaidu ba. Hanyoyin aikatau marasa ma'ana yawanci sun haɗa da wasu hanyoyi.
A cikin misali 1 da ke ƙasa, an musanta sashi mai bayyanawa a cikin halin da ake ciki.[9] Kalmomin i-vu ma'anar 'tafi' a cikin mutum na uku na ainihi ana musanta shi ta amfani da ɓangaren da ba shi da kyau na si. Hakazalika da misalin 1 a sama, ana amfani da ƙarancin ƙarancin magana si don ƙin mutum na farko mai suna ibi-idan ma'anar 'ci' a cikin misali 2 a ƙasa.[9] Koyaya, ya kamata a lura da waɗannan:
- Ƙarshen ƙarancin magana na baya-bayan nan yana biye da tsarin magana wanda yake musantawa. A wannan yanayin shi ne mafi-kkan. Wannan yana da mahimmanci a cikin wannan misali saboda akwai kalmomi biyu da ke ciki. Tun da yake si kai tsaye yana biye da miya-idan, kawai yana ƙin miya-kyan ba i-ver ba.
- Har ila yau, yana da mahimmanci a lura cewa aikatau da ake musanta shi, kai tsaye ya riga si, kuma cewa si kai tsaye ya gaba da raguwar ƙwayoyin ƙira a cikin. Duk wani bangare na jumla da ake musantawa kuma yana faruwa bayan aikin aikatau da aka musanta zai faru bayan si a cikin aikin da aka musanya. Duk da haka akwai wasu banbanci ga wannan kamar yadda aka nuna a cikin misalai 6 zuwa 9 idan si affixes don samar da sabbin alamomi, da kuma a cikin misali 10 zuwa 13 idan si ya faru tare da tsarin aikatau na serial.
Misali 3 da ke ƙasa yana nuna wani misali na musantawa ta amfani da ƙarancin ƙarancin magana si.[9] Koyaya, a cikin wannan misali yana da mahimmanci a lura cewa duk wata kalma (wanda zai iya ɗaukar yanayi) bayan si a cikin misali 3 an rubuta ta cikin yanayi mara kyau. Wannan wata alama ce ta musantawa a Lingarak. Lokacin da wani abu a cikin halin da ake ciki ya lalace a cikin Lingarak, to abubuwa masu bin kwayar si za a rubuta su cikin halin da ba daidai ba.[9]
Rashin yarda da wanzuwar
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin Lingarak, gine-ginen aikatau waɗanda ke bayyana ma'anar wanzuwar, wanda aka fi sani da gine-ginin wanzuwar wanzuwar an bi da su kamar sauran aikatau na yau da kullun lokacin da aka musanta su.[5] Don haka, don ƙaryata aikatau tokh a cikin Lingarak wanda ke nufin 'don wanzu', ana buƙatar ƙwayoyin si kawai don bin shi kamar yadda aka nuna a cikin misali 4 a ƙasa.[9]
Manazarta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Yaren Neverver". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 Barbour 2012.
- ↑ "Did you know Neverver is vulnerable?". Endangered Languages. Archived from the original on 2016-09-21. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
- ↑ Crystal 2009
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Barbour 2012
- ↑ Crystal 2009
- ↑ Crystal 2009
- ↑ Crystal 2009
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Barbour 2012