Yaren Cham
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with short description]]
Cham (Cham: ꨌꩌ) yaren Malayo-Polynesia ne na dangin Australiya, wanda Chams na kudu maso gabashin Asiya ke magana. Ana magana ne da farko a cikin ƙasar tsohuwar Masarautar Champa, wacce ta mamaye Kudancin Vietnam na zamani, haka kuma a cikin Cambodia ta yawan jama'a masu yawa waɗanda suka fito daga 'yan gudun hijirar da suka gudu a lokacin raguwa da faɗuwar Champa. Mutane 220,000 ne ke magana da nau'in Yamma a Cambodia da kuma mutane 25,000 a Vietnam. Dangane da nau'in Gabas, akwai kusan masu magana 73,000 a Vietnam,[1] don jimlar kusan 491,448 masu magan[3]
Cham na cikin harsunan Chamic ne, waɗanda ake magana da su a sassan yankin kudu maso gabashin Asiya, lardin Aceh na Indonesiya, da kuma tsibirin Hainan. Cham shine yaren Austronesian mafi dadewa da aka tabbatar, tare da tabbatar da rubutun Đông Yên Châu a ƙarshen karni na 4 AD. Tana da yaruka da yawa, tare da Eastern Cham (Phan Rang Cham) da Western Cham sune manyan. Rubutun Cham, wanda aka samo daga tsohon rubutun Indic, har yanzu ana amfani da shi don dalilai na biki da na addini.
Tarihi[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Asalin Tsatso[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Template:Further TAn yi imanin cewa mutanen Cham zuriyar Masarautar Champa ce, wacce ta kasance masarauta mai karfi da tasiri wacce ta bunkasa a yankin da ke tsakiya da kudancin Vietnam a yanzu daga kusan karni na 2 zuwa na 17. Masarautar Champa tana da al'adu da harshe na musamman waɗanda suka bambanta mutanen Cham da makwabta.
Masarautar Champa[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Masarautar Champa ta taka muhimmiyar rawa a harkokin kasuwanci da musayar al'adu na yanki, tare da yin mu'amala da wayewar da ke makwabtaka da su kamar Masarautar Khmer, Dai Viet (Vietnamese), da sauransu. Mutanen Cham sun kirkiro nasu rubutun da aka fi sani da Cham script, wanda aka yi amfani da shi wajen rubutu da nassosin addini.
Faduwar Champa[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
The decline of the Champa Kingdom began in the 15th century, and by the 17th century, it had been absorbed by the expanding Vietnamese state. This period marked significant cultural and linguistic changes for the Cham people as they came under the influence of the dominant Vietnamese culture.
Cham Diaspora[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Sakamakon abubuwan tarihi, ciki har da yaƙe-yaƙe da mamaye Champa da Vietnam, mutanen Cham sun fuskanci ƙaura. Wasu sun yi hijira zuwa Cambodia, inda suka kafa al'ummomi, yayin da wasu suka kasance a Vietnam. Harshen Cham ya sami sauye-sauye da gyare-gyare yayin da mutanen Cham ke hulɗa da al'adun sabon muhallinsu.
Kalubalen Zamani[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
A wannan zamani, yaren Cham yana fuskantar ƙalubale kamar ƙalubalen kamanceceniya, sauye-sauyen harshe, da tasirin manyan harsuna a yankunan da al'ummomin Cham ke zama. Ana ƙoƙarin kiyayewa da kuma farfado da harshen Cham, gami da shirye-shiryen al'adu, shirye-shiryen ilimi, da takaddun harshe.
Fassarar sauti[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Yaren Cham kowanne yana da baƙaƙe 21 da wasula 9.[4]
Wasula[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
- ↑ /r/ in Western Cham is heard as a velar fricative Template:IPAblink. In Eastern Cham, it is heard as an alveolar flap Template:IPAblink, glide Template:IPAblink, or trill Template:IPAblink.[5]
Bakake[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Monophthongs[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Diphthongs[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
/ia/, /iɯ/ (occurs only before /-ʔ/), /ea/, /ua/, /oa/, /au/ (occurs only before /-ʔ/), /iə/, /ɛə/, /ɔə/, /uə/.
Nahawu[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Hada kalmomi[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Akwai prefixes da infixe da yawa waɗanda za a iya amfani da su don samo kalmar.[6]
- prefix pa-: causative, wani lokacin yana ba da ƙarin ƙarfi ga kalmar thau (don sani) → hanya (don sanar) blei (don siya) → pablei (don siyarwa) biér (ƙananan) → pabiér (zuwa ƙasa) yao (kamar, as) → payao (don kwatanta) jâ (gama) → paja (an gama da kyau) prefix mâ-: wani lokaci mai haddasawa, sau da yawa yana nuna jiha, mallaka, juna, juna. jru (guba) → mâjru (ga guba) Template:Transliteration (malami) → mâgru (na karatu) tian (ciki) → mâtian (ciki) boh (kwai, 'ya'yan itace) → mâboh (sa kwai, ba da 'ya'yan itace) daké (horn) → mâdaké (mai ƙaho) prefix ta- ko da-: akai-akai galung (don mirgina) → tagalung (don mirgina) dep (don boye kansa) → dadep (don a saba boye kansa) infix -an-: samuwar suna puec (don yin magana) → panuec (magana) tiw (jere) → taniw (oar) dok (zauna) → danok (gida, wurin zama) infix -mâ-: babu takamaiman ma'ana payao (don kwatanta) → pamâyao (don kwatanta) Ana yawan amfani da maimaitawa: palei, pala-palei (ƙasa) rambah, rambah-rambap (bacin rai)
Jumla da tsarin kalma[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Cham gabaɗaya yana amfani da tsarin kalma na SVO, ba tare da wata alama ba don bambanta batun daga abu: Template:Interlinear Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Dummy pronominal batutuwa ana amfani da su wani lokaci, suna sake maimaita batun: Samfura:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Haɗaɗɗen fi’ili za su kasance kamar fi’ili ɗaya da ba za a iya raba su ba, kasancewar abin ya zo bayansa: Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Wani lokaci, duk da haka, ana sanya fi'ili a gaban jigon: Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ana sanya ƙarin kalmomi bayan kowane abu: Samfura:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Idan jumla ta ƙunshi babban fi'ili fiye da ɗaya, ɗayan biyun zai sami ma'anar adverbial: Template:Interlinear.[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Siffofin suna zuwa bayan sunayen da suke gyarawa: Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Idan aka juya odar, gaba ɗaya zai kasance kamar fili: Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Za a iya samar da jimloli masu haɗaka tare da barbashi krung: Template:Interlinear Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Hakanan yana yiwuwa a bar wannan barbashi, ba tare da canza ma'ana ba: Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
An samar da tambayoyi tare da jimla-ƙarshen rẽ[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Other question words are in situ: Template:Interlinear
Sunaye[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Kamar yawancin harsuna a Gabashin Asiya, Cham yana amfani da ƙididdiga masu ƙididdiga don bayyana adadin. Mai rarrabawa koyaushe zai zo bayan lamba, tare da suna zuwa koyaushe kafin ko bayan nau'in ƙira-lambobi. Template:Interlinear Template:Interlinear Misalai na sama suna nuna classifier boḥ, wanda a zahiri yana nufin "kwai" kuma shine mafi yawan amfani da shi - musamman ga abubuwa masu zagaye da girma. Sauran masu rarrabawa sune ôrang (mutum) na mutane da alloli, ḅêk don dogon abubuwa, blaḥ (leaf) don abubuwan lebur, da sauran su.[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ana lissafin ranakun wata da irin wannan tsari, tare da rabe-rabe guda biyu: daya (bangun) ana kirga kwanaki kafin wata, dayan kuma (ranaṃ) kwanaki bayan cikar wata. Samfura:Interlinear Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Maganganun suna na sirri suna aiki kamar sunaye na yau da kullun kuma ba sa nuna bambanci. Akwai nau'i daban-daban dangane da matakin ladabi. Mutum na farko wanda ba shi da ɗaya, alal misali, shine kău a yanayi na yau da kullun ko na nesa, yayin da yake dahlak (a Vietnam) ko hulun (a Cambodia) a cikin yanayin ladabi na yau da kullun. Kamar yadda yake da yawancin harsunan yankin, ana amfani da kalmomin zumunta a matsayin karin magana na sirri.[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
An bayyana kwatankwacinsu da mafifici tare da mahallin wuri di/dii: Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Kalmomi[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Akwai wasu ɓangarorin da za a iya amfani da su don nuna tashin hankali. Ana nuna gaba tare da si ko thi a Vietnam, tare da hi ko si a Cambodia. An bayyana cikakke tare da jâ. Na farko ya zo gaban fi’ili: Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Na biyun jimla-ƙarshe: Template:Interlinear[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Wasu kalmomi na iya aiki azaman mataimaka don bayyana wasu lokuta ko sassa. Ana amfani da kalmar dok ("zama") don ci gaba, wâk ("komawa") don yanayin maimaituwa, da kieng ("son") don yanayin gaba.[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
An ƙirƙiri saɓani tare da oh/o a ko dai ko bangarorin biyu na fi'ili, ko tare da di/dii a gaba.[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
An kafa mahimmancin tare da jimla-ƙarshen bék, da kuma mummunan mahimmanci tare da preverbal juai/juei (a Vietnam da Cambodia bi da bi).[8][gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ilimin zamantakewa[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Diglossia[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Brunelle observed two phenomena of language use among speakers of Eastern Cham: They are both diglossic and bilingual (in Cham and Vietnamese). Diglossia is the situation where two varieties of a language are used in a single language community, and oftentimes one is used on formal occasions (labelled H) and the other is more colloquial (labelled L).[9][10]
Dialectal differences[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Cham is divided into two primary dialects.
- Western Cham: It is spoken by the Chams in Cambodia as well as in the adjacent Vietnamese provinces of An Giang and Tây Ninh.
- Eastern Cham: It is spoken by the coastal Cham population in the Vietnamese provinces of Bình Thuận, Ninh Thuận, and Đồng Nai.
The two regions where Cham is spoken are separated both geographically and culturally. The more numerous Western Cham are predominantly Muslims (although some in Cambodia now practice Theravāda Buddhism), while the Eastern Cham practice both Hinduism and Islam. Ethnologue states that the Eastern and Western dialects are no longer mutually intelligible. The table below gives some examples of words where the two dialects differed as of the 19th century.[11]
Cambodia southern Vietnam vowels child anœk anẽk take tuk tôk not jvẽi jvai sibilants one sa tha save from drowning srong throng salt sara shara equal samu hamu final consonants heavy trap trak in front anap anak lexical differences market pasa darak hate amoḥ limuk
Lê et al. (2014:175)[12] lists a few Cham subgroups.
- Chăm Poông: in Thạnh Hiếu village, Phan Hiệp commune, Bắc Bình District, Bình Thuận Province. The Chăm Poông practice burial instead of cremation as the surrounding Cham do.
- Chăm Hroi (population 4,000): in Phước Vân District (Bình Định Province), Đồng Xuân District (Phú Yên Province), and Tây Sơn District (Bình Định Province)
- Chàvà Ku, a mixed Malay-Khmer people in Châu Đốc
Tsarin rubutu[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Cham script is a Brahmic script.[1] The script has two varieties: Akhar Thrah (Eastern Cham) and Akhar Srak (Western Cham). The Western Cham language is written with the Arabic script or the aforementioned Akhar Srak.[13][14]
misalin ruburu[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
ꨕꨨꨵꩀ ꨧꨮ ꨍꨯꩆ ꨇꩈ ꨟꨮꨭ ꨕꨮꩃ ꨆꩇ ꨨꩆ ꨨꩈ ꨕꩃ ꨕꨭ ꨟꨁꨁ ꨍꨭꨢꨮꩆ ꨚꩈ ꨔꩃ ꨣꩇ ꨆꨨꨁꨃꨂ ꨝꩆ ꨔꩆ ꨇꨯꩂ ꨍꨮꨭ ꨓꨮ ꨨꩃ ꨍꨮꨭ ꨆꨯ ꨟꨶꩆ ꨕꩈ ꨌꩌ
Kamus[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
The Ming dynasty Chinese Bureau of Translators produced a Chinese-Cham dictionary.[Ana bukatan hujja]
John Crawfurd's 1822 work "Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China" contains a wordlist of the Cham language.[15]:40
Duba Kuma[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Manazarta[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Cham". The Unicode Standard, Version 11.0 (in Turanci). Mountain View, CA: Unicode Consortium. p. 661.
- ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Cham". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namede26 - ↑ Ueki, Kaori (2011). Prosody and Intonation of Western Cham (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis). University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-01-29. Retrieved 2024-02-25.
- ↑ Smith, Alexander D. (2013). A Grammatical Sketch of Eastern Cham (in Turanci).
- ↑ Aymonier 1889, chapt. X
- ↑ Aymonier 1889, chapt. XIX
- ↑ Aymonier 1889, chapt. XV
- ↑ Brunelle, Marc (2008). "Diglossia, Bilingualism, and the Revitalization of Written Eastern Cham". Language Documentation & Conservation. 2 (1): 28–46. hdl:10125/1848.
- ↑ Brunelle, Marc (2009). "Diglossia and Monosyllabization in Eastern Cham: A Sociolinguistic Study". In Stanford, J. N.; Preston, D. R. (eds.). Variation in Indigenous Minority Languages (in Turanci). John Benjamins. pp. 47–75.
- ↑ Aymonier 1889, chapt. IX
- ↑ Lê Bá Thảo, Hoàng Ma, et. al; Viện hàn lâm khoa học xã hội Việt Nam - Viện dân tộc học. 2014. Các dân tộc ít người ở Việt Nam: các tỉnh phía nam. Ha Noi: Nhà xuất bản khoa học xã hội. 08033994793.ABA
- ↑ Hosken, Martin (2019), L2/19-217 Proposal to Encode Western Cham in the UCS (PDF) (in Turanci)
- ↑ Bruckmayr, Philipp (2019). "The Changing Fates of the Cambodian Islamic Manuscript Tradition". Journal of Islamic Manuscripts (in Turanci). 10 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1163/1878464X-01001001. S2CID 167038700.
- ↑ Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications (in Turanci). University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770.
Don Karin Karatu[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Template:Incubator Template:Incubator
- Grant, Anthony (Ed.); Sidwell, Paul (Ed.) (2005). Grant, Anthony; Sidwell, Paul (eds.). Chamic and Beyond: Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages. Pl-569. Pacific Linguistics (in Turanci). 569. Canberra: Australian National University. doi:10.15144/PL-569. hdl:1885/146271. ISBN 0-85883-561-4.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
- Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Rreconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication No. 28. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2131-9.
- Aymonier, Étienne; Cabaton, Antoine (1906). Dictionnaire čam-français. Volume 7 of Publications de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. Paris: E. Leroux.
- Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale.
- Blood, D. L., & Blood, D. (1977). East Cham language. Vietnam data microfiche series, no. VD 51-72. Huntington Beach, Calif: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Blood, D. L. (1977). A romanization of the Cham language in relation to the Cham script. Vietnam data microfiche series, no. VD51-17. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Edwards, E. D.; Blagden, C. O. (1939). "A Chinese Vocabulary of Cham Words and Phrases". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London. 10 (1): 53–91. JSTOR 607926.
- Braginsky, Vladimir (2014). Classical Civilizations of South-East Asia. Routledge. pp. 398–. ISBN 978-1-136-84879-7.
- Moussay, Gerard (1971). Dictionnaire Cam-Vietnamien-Français (in Faransanci). Phan Rang: Centre Culturel Cam.
- Sakaya (2014). Từ điển Chăm (in Harshen Biyetinam). Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản Tri Thức. ISBN 978-604-908-999-2.
- Various (2011). Ngôn ngữ Chăm: thực trạng và giải pháp (in Harshen Biyetinam). Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản Phụ Nữ.
Mahada ta Waje[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
- Kaipuleohone has an archive including written materials of Cham
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- Languages attested from the 8th century
- Languages of Cambodia
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