Ƙarfe
 karfe | |
|---|---|
.jpeg) | |
| Bayanai | |
| Ƙaramin ɓangare na | malleable material (en)  da metallic material (en) |
| Associated hazard (en) | metal poisoning (en) |
| Hashtag (mul) | metal |
| Has characteristic (en) | metallic lustre (en) |
| MCN code (en) | 7109.00.00 |
(daga Tsohon Girkanci (métallon) 'ma'adinai, dutse, ƙarfe') abu ne wanda, lokacin da aka goge ko ya karye, yana nuna bayyanar haske, kuma yana gudanar da wutar lantarki da zafi sosai. Wadannan kaddarorin duk suna da alaƙa da samun electrons a Matsayin Fermi, sabanin kayan da ba na ƙarfe ba waɗanda ba su da. : Chpt 8 & 19 : Chpt 7 & 8 Karfe yawanci ductile ne (za a iya jawo su cikin waya) da malleable (za a tsara su ta hanyar hammering ko matsawa).
Karfe na iya zama sinadarin sinadarai, kamar ƙarfe, gami, kamar ƙaramin ƙarfe, ko mahaɗin kwayoyin, kamar polymer sulfur nitride . Ana kiran kimiyyar ƙarfe gabaɗaya, wani yanki na kimiyyar kayan aiki; fannoni na kayan lantarki da kayan zafi suma suna cikin ikon kimiyyar lissafi da ilmin sunadarai, saboda batun ne mai yawa. A cikin amfani da magana, ana kiran kayan kamar ƙarfe na ƙarfe a matsayin ƙarfe, yayin da wasu, kamar polymers, itace, ko yumbu kayan da ba na ƙarfe ba ne.
Karfe yana gudanar da wutar lantarki a zafin jiki na cikakkiyar sifili, wanda shine sakamakon jihohin da aka cire a makamashi na Fermi. Abubuwa da mahadi da yawa sun zama ƙarfe a ƙarƙashin matsin lamba; alal misali, iodine a hankali ya zama ƙarfe ne a matsin lamba tsakanin sau 40 zuwa 170 na yanayi.
Lokacin tattauna tebur na lokaci da wasu kaddarorin sunadarai, ana amfani da kalmar ƙarfe sau da yawa don nuna waɗancan abubuwa waɗanda a cikin tsari mai tsabta kuma a yanayin daidaitattun ƙarfe ne a cikin ma'anar wutar lantarki da aka ambata a sama. Hakanan ana iya amfani da kalmar da ta shafi ƙarfe don nau'ikan ƙwayoyin dopant ko abubuwa masu haɗawa.
Ƙarfi da juriya na wasu karafa sun haifar da amfani da su akai-akai a, alal misali, gine-gine masu tsawo da gini gada, da kuma mafi yawan motoci, kayan gida da yawa, kayan aiki, bututu, da hanyoyin jirgin ƙasa. An yi amfani da Karfe masu daraja a tarihi a matsayin tsabar kudi, amma a zamanin zamani, ƙarfe na tsabar kudi sun kai ga akalla 23 daga cikin sinadarai.[1] Har ila yau, akwai amfani mai yawa na karafa masu yawa kamar titanium nitride ko semiconductors masu lalacewa a cikin masana'antar semiconductor.[2]
Tarihin ƙarfe mai tsabta ana zaton ya fara ne da amfani da jan ƙarfe kimanin shekaru 11,000 da suka gabata. Zinariya, azurfa, baƙin ƙarfe (a matsayin ƙarfe na meteoric), gubar, da tagulla suma ana amfani da su kafin bayyanar farko da aka sani na tagulla a cikin karni na biyar KZ. Ci gaban da suka biyo baya sun haɗa da samar da nau'ikan ƙarfe na farko; gano sodium - ƙarfe na ƙarfe na fari - a cikin 1809; haɓakar ƙarfe na zamani; kuma, tun ƙarshen Yaƙin Duniya na II, ci gaban ƙarin ƙwayoyin ƙarfe.
Abubuwan da ke ciki
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Hanyar da tsari
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Yawancin karafa suna mai haske kuma suna da haske, aƙalla lokacin da aka goge, ko kuma sun karye. Takardun ƙarfe masu kauri fiye da 'yan micrometers sun bayyana ba su da kyau, amma ganye na zinariya yana watsa haske mai kore. Wannan ya faru ne saboda 'yan lantarki masu motsi wanda ke nuna haske.
Although most elemental metals have higher densities than nonmetals, there is a wide variation in their densities, lithium being the least dense (0.534 g/cm3) and osmium (22.59 g/cm3) the most dense. Some of the 6d transition metals are expected to be denser than osmium, but their known isotopes are too unstable for bulk production to be possible. Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. Their respective densities of 1.7, 2.7, and 4.5 g/cm3 can be compared to those of the older structural metals, like iron at 7.9 and copper at 8.9 g/cm3. The most common lightweight metals are aluminium[3] and magnesium[4][5] alloys.
Karfe yawanci suna da ma'auni kuma suna da maɓallin, suna lalacewa a ƙarƙashin damuwa ba tare da rushewa ba. Yanayin da ba a gudanar da shi ba na haɗin ƙarfe yana ba da gudummawa ga ductility na mafi yawan ƙarfe, inda damuwa ta Peierls ba ta da ƙarancin ba da izini ga motsi, kuma akwai haɗuwa da yawa na jiragen sama da jagororin don lalacewar filastik. Saboda suna da shirye-shiryen da aka yi da su na atomatik, Burgers vector na dislocations suna da ɗan ƙarami, wanda kuma ke nufin cewa makamashi da ake buƙata don samar da ɗaya ƙarami ne.[6] Sabanin haka, a cikin fili na ionic kamar gishiri na tebur, abubuwan Burgers sun fi girma kuma makamashi don motsa motsi ya fi girma.[7] Za'a iya bayyana lalacewar juyawa a cikin karafa da kyau ta hanyar Dokar Hooke don maidowa, inda damuwa ta dace da damuwa, har zuwa iyakar kayan. [8]
Canjin zafin jiki na iya haifar da motsi na lahani na tsari a cikin ƙarfe kamar iyakokin hatsi, wuraren da ba su da tushe, layin da ɓarna, ɓarna da tagwaye a cikin ƙaramin crystalline da wanda ba na crystallino ba. Rashin ciki, raguwa, da Gajiyawar ƙarfe na iya biyo baya.
Kwayoyin abubuwa masu sauki na ƙarfe galibi suna cikin ɗaya daga cikin Tsarin lu'ulu'u guda uku, wato Cubic na tsakiya na jiki (bcc), cubic na fuska (fcc), da hexagonal kusa-paked (hcp). A cikin bcc, kowane atom yana cikin tsakiya na cube na wasu takwas. A cikin fcc da hcp, kowane atom yana kewaye da wasu goma sha biyu, amma tarin yadudduka ya bambanta. Wasu karafa suna ɗaukar tsari daban-daban dangane da zafin jiki.
Body-centered cubic crystal structure, with a 2-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. chromium, iron, and tungsten
Face-centered cubic crystal structure, with a 4-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. aluminium, copper, and gold
Hexagonal close-packed crystal structure, with a 6-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. titanium, cobalt, and zinc
Arrangement of atoms in a rock salt crystal such as TiN
Lantarki da zafi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Tsarin lantarki na karafa yana sa su zama masu gudanar da wutar lantarki masu kyau. Gabaɗaya, electrons a cikin abu duk suna da lokaci daban-daban, wanda ke da matsakaicin zuwa sifili lokacin da babu ƙarfin lantarki na waje. A cikin karafa, lokacin da aka yi amfani da ƙarfin lantarki, wasu electrons suna canzawa zuwa jihohin da ke da ɗan ƙaramin ƙarfi a cikin jagorancin filin lantarki, yayin da wasu ke raguwa dan kadan. Wannan yana haifar da saurin gudu wanda ke haifar da halin lantarki. Wannan ya haɗa da ƙananan canje-canje waɗanda ke cikin motsi da electrons ke ciki, suna canzawa zuwa waɗanda ke da mafi girman lokaci. Dangane da Ka'idar cirewa ta Pauli, babu wani electrons guda biyu da zai iya zama daidai da yanayin.[9] Sabili da haka, don electrons su sauya zuwa jihohin da suka fi girma, irin waɗannan jihohin dole ne su kasance marasa aiki. A cikin karafa, waɗannan jihohin lantarki marasa amfani suna samuwa a makamashi kusa da matakan da aka fi shahara, kamar yadda aka nuna a cikin Hoto.
Manazarta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ Roe, J.; Roe, M. (1992). "World's coinage uses 24 chemical elements". World Coinage News. 19 (4, 5): 24–25, 18–19.
- ↑ Stampfl, C.; Mannstadt, W.; Asahi, R.; Freeman, A. J. (2001). "Electronic structure and physical properties of early transition metal mononitrides: Density-functional theory LDA, GGA, and screened-exchange LDA FLAPW calculations". Physical Review B. 63 (15). Bibcode:2001PhRvB..63o5106S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.63.155106.
- ↑ Li, Shuang–Shuang; Yue, Xin; Li, Qing–Yuan; Peng, He–Li; Dong, Bai–Xin; Liu, Tian–Shu; Yang, Hong–Yu; Fan, Jun; Shu, Shi–Li; Qiu, Feng; Jiang, Qi–Chuan (2023-11-01). "Development and applications of aluminum alloys for aerospace industry". Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 27: 944–983. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.09.274. ISSN 2238-7854.
- ↑ Gupta, M.; Wong, W. L. E. (2015-07-01). "Magnesium-based nanocomposites: Lightweight materials of the future". Materials Characterization. 105: 30–46. doi:10.1016/j.matchar.2015.04.015. ISSN 1044-5803.
- ↑ Ogawa, Yukiko; Ando, Daisuke; Sutou, Yuji; Koike, Junichi (2016-07-22). "A lightweight shape-memory magnesium alloy". Science (in Turanci). 353 (6297): 368–370. Bibcode:2016Sci...353..368O. doi:10.1126/science.aaf6524. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 27463668.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs named "Weertman-1992". - ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs named "Callister-1997". - ↑ Roylance, David (2001-08-23). "Stress-strain curves" (PDF). p. 2.
- ↑ Empty citation (help)