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Hakar ma'adinai

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Hakar ma'adinai
economic activity (en) Fassara da academic discipline (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare naAmfani da albarkatun kasa
Bangare namining industry (en) Fassara
By-product (en) Fassaramining wastes (en) Fassara
Tarihin maudu'ihistory of mining (en) Fassara
Gudanarwanmining engineer (en) Fassara, miner (en) Fassara da mine entrepreneur (en) Fassara
Uses (en) Fassaramining engineering (en) Fassara da mining technology (en) Fassara
ISCO-88 occupation class (en) Fassara3117
Person stabbing a yellow mineral block
Mining na sulfur daga ajiya a gefen tafkin crater na Ijen, Indonesia

Ma'adinai shine cirewa kayan ƙasa da ma'adanai daga farfajiyar Duniya. Ana buƙatar hakar ma'adinai don samun mafi yawan kayan da ba za a iya shuka su ba ta hanyar aikin gona, ko kuma a iya yin su ta hanyar wucin gadi a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje ko masana'anta. Ores da aka dawo da su ta hanyar hakar ma'adinai sun hada da karafa, chalk" id="mwHQ" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Coal">kwal, man shale, duwatsu masu daraja, dutse mai laushi, gishiri na dutse, potash, dutse, da yumɓu. Dole ne ma'adinin ya zama dutse ko ma'adinai wanda ke dauke da wani abu mai mahimmanci, ana iya cire shi ko kuma a haƙa shi, kuma a sayar da shi don riba. Ma'adinai a cikin ma'ana mai zurfi ya haɗa da cire duk wani albarkatun da ba za a iya sabuntawa ba kamar man fetur, iskar gas, ko ma ruwa.

Har ila yau, hakar ma'adinai tana da alaƙa da tasirin muhalli, kiwon lafiya, da zamantakewa. Ayyukan hakar ma'adinai suna taimakawa wajen lalata ƙasa, gurɓataccen ruwa, da asarar mazaunin. Baya ga tasirin muhalli, an haɗa hakar ma'adinai da haɗarin kiwon lafiya na aiki da ƙaurawar al'umma, kuma ya shafi ƙananan masu samun kuɗi da waɗanda aka ware.

Hanyoyin hakar ma'adinai na zamani sun haɗa da Bincike don jikin ma'adanai, nazarin yiwuwar riba na ma'adinin da aka tsara, cire kayan da ake so, da sake farfadowa na ƙarshe ko maido da ƙasar bayan an rufe ma'adinan. Ana samun kayan hakar ma'adinai sau da yawa daga jikin ma'adanai, laka, jijiyoyi, sutura, reefs, ko ajiyar wuri. Amfani da waɗannan ajiya don albarkatun kasa ya dogara da saka hannun jari, aiki, makamashi, tsaftacewa, da farashin sufuri.

Tsaron aiki ya daɗe yana damuwa, kuma inda aka tilasta, ayyukan zamani sun inganta tsaro a cikin ma'adinai. Ba a tsara shi ba, ba a tsara shi sosai ba ko kuma ba bisa ka'ida ba, musamman a cikin tattalin arzikin da ke tasowa, sau da yawa yana ba da gudummawa ga keta haƙƙin ɗan adam na gida da rikice-Rikicin muhalli. Har ila yau, hakar ma'adinai na iya ci gaba da rashin kwanciyar hankali na siyasa ta hanyar rikice-rikicen albarkatu.

Tarihi

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Tarihi na farko

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Tun farkon wayewa, mutane sun yi amfani da dutse, yumɓu, kuma, daga baya, karafa da aka samu kusa da farfajiyar Duniya.[1] An yi amfani da waɗannan don yin kayan aiki da makamai na farko; alal misali, an yi amfani da dutse mai inganci da aka samu a arewacin kasar Faransa, kudancin Ingila, da Poland don ƙirƙirar kayan aikin dutse. An samo ma'adanai na Flint a wuraren da aka yi amfani da dutse inda aka biye da sutura na dutse a karkashin kasa ta hanyar shafts da gallery. Ma'adanai a Grimes Graves da Krzemionki sun shahara sosai, kuma kamar sauran ma'adanai, sune Neolithic a asali (c. 4000-3000 BC). Sauran duwatsu masu wuya da aka haƙa ko aka tattara don gatari sun haɗa da greenstone na Masana'antar gatari ta Langdale da ke cikin Gundumar Tafkin Ingila. Tsohon ma'adinai da aka sani a cikin rikodin archaeological shine Ngwenya Mine a Eswatini (Swaziland) , wanda kwanan wata radiocarbon ya nuna kusan shekaru 41,000 - 43,000 ne. A wannan shafin Paleolithic mutane sun haƙa Hematite don yin jan pigment ochre. [2] An yi imanin cewa ma'adanai na irin wannan shekarun a Hungary wuraren ne inda Neanderthals na iya haƙa dutse don makamai da kayan aiki.[3]

Misira ta Dā

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Malachite


Yin hakar Ma'adinai a Misira ya faru ne a farkon sarakuna. Ma'adinan zinariya na Nubia sun kasance daga cikin mafi girma a cikin tsohuwar Misira. Marubucin Girkanci Diodorus Siculus ne ya bayyana wadannan ma'adanai, wanda ya ambaci saita wuta a matsayin hanya daya da aka yi amfani da ita don rushe dutse mai wuya da ke riƙe da zinariya. Ɗaya daga cikin hadaddun an nuna shi a cikin ɗaya daga cikin taswirar ma'adinai na farko da aka sani.[4] Masu hakar ma'adinai sun murkushe ma'adinin kuma sun niƙa shi zuwa foda mai kyau kafin su wanke foda don ƙurar zinariya da aka sani da tsarin bushewa da rigar haɗewa.[5]

Ci gaban Romawa na Dā na Ma'adinan Zinare na Dolaucothi, Wales

Ma'adinai a Turai suna da dogon tarihi.[6] Misalan sun haɗa da ma'adinan azurfa na Laurium, wanda ya taimaka wajen tallafawa birnin Girka na Athens. Kodayake suna da bayi sama da 20,000 da ke aiki da su, fasaharsu ta kasance daidai da waɗanda suka riga su na Bronze Age.[7] A wasu ma'adanai, kamar a tsibirin Thassos, Parians sun tono marmara bayan sun isa karni na 7 BC.[8] An fitar da marmara kuma daga baya masu binciken tarihi sun gano cewa an yi amfani da su a cikin gine-gine ciki har da kabarin Amphipolis. Philip II na Makidoniya, mahaifin Alexander the Great, ya kama ma'adinan zinariya na Dutsen Pangeo a cikin 357 BC don tallafawa yakin basasa.[9] Ya kuma kama ma'adanai na zinariya a Thrace don yin tsabar kudi, daga ƙarshe ya samar da tan 26 a kowace shekara.

Koyaya, Romawa ne suka haɓaka hanyoyin hakar ma'adinai masu yawa, musamman amfani da ruwa mai yawa da aka kawo zuwa ma'adinin ta hanyar hanyoyin ruwa da yawa. An yi amfani da ruwa don dalilai daban-daban, gami da cire nauyin da aka yi da kuma tarkace na dutse (aikin da ake kira ma'adinai na hydraulic), wanke ma'adanai (ko murkushe), da kuma fitar da kayan aiki masu sauƙi.

Romawa ne suka kirkiro hanyoyin Sluicing a Spain a cikin 25 AD don amfani da manyan wuraren ajiyar zinariya, mafi girman shafin yana Las Medulas, inda manyan hanyoyin ruwa guda bakwai suka mamaye koguna na gida kuma suka rufe wuraren ajiyar. Romawa kuma sun yi amfani da azurfa da ke cikin Galena mai azurfa a cikin ma'adanai na Cartagena (Carthago Nova), Linares (Castulo), Plasenzuela da Azuaga, da sauransu da yawa. Spain na ɗaya daga cikin manyan yankuna masu hakar ma'adinai, amma duk yankuna na Daular Romawa an yi amfani da su. A cikin Biritaniya 'yan asalin sun haƙa ma'adanai na dubban shekaru, amma bayan Nasarar Romawa, sikelin ayyukan ya karu sosai, yayin da Romawa ke buƙatar albarkatun Biritaniya, musamman zinariya, azurfa, tin, da gubar.[10]

Hanyoyin Romawa ba a iyakance su ga hakar ma'adinai ba. Sun bi hanyoyin ma'adinai a karkashin kasa da zarar ba za a iya amfani da ma'adanai ba. A Dolaucothi sun dakatar da jijiyoyi kuma sun kori adits ta hanyar dutse mara kyau don zubar da tsalle-tsalle. An kuma yi amfani da kayan aiki iri ɗaya don isar da iska, musamman ma mahimmanci lokacin da aka yi amfani da saita wuta. A wasu sassan shafin, sun shiga cikin teburin ruwa kuma sun cire ruwa daga ma'adanai ta amfani da nau'ikan injuna da yawa, musamman ma ƙafafun ruwa. An yi amfani da waɗannan sosai a cikin ma'adinan jan ƙarfe a Rio Tinto a Spain, inda jerin sun ƙunshi irin waɗannan ƙafafun 16 da aka shirya a nau'i-nau'i, kuma suna ɗaga ruwa game da mita 24 (79 . Sun yi aiki a matsayin masu tafiya tare da masu hakar ma'adinai da ke tsaye a saman allunan. An sami misalai da yawa na irin waɗannan na'urorin a cikin tsoffin ma'adanai na Romawa, kuma yanzu an adana wasu misalai a Gidan Tarihi na Burtaniya da Gidan Tarihin Kasa na Wales.[11]

Turai ta Tsakiya

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Agricola, marubucin De Re MetallicaDaga Re Metallica
Gidan zane, karni na 12 zuwa 13, Jamus

Ma'adinai a matsayin masana'antu sun sami canje-canje masu ban mamaki a Turai ta zamani. Masana'antar hakar ma'adinai a farkon Zamanin Tsakiya ta fi mayar da hankali kan fitar da jan ƙarfe da baƙin ƙarfe. An kuma yi amfani da wasu karafa masu daraja, galibi don zinariya ko tsabar kudi. Da farko, an sami karafa da yawa ta hanyar hakar ma'adinai, kuma an cire ma'adanai da farko daga zurfin zurfi, maimakon ta hanyar zurfin ma'adinin. A cikin Karni na 14, karuwar amfani da makamai, makamai, igiyoyi, da kuma dawakai sun kara bukatar ƙarfe sosai. Misali, ana yawan ɗaukar jarumawa na zamani har zuwa fam 100 (45 na farantin ko makamai masu haɗin sarkar ban da takobi, māshi da sauran makamai. Dogaro da yawa akan ƙarfe don dalilai na soja ya haifar da samar da ƙarfe da hanyoyin cirewa.

Rikicin azurfa na 1465 ya faru ne lokacin da duk ma'adanai suka kai zurfin inda ba za a iya yin amfani da shafts ba tare da fasahar da ke akwai.[12] Kodayake karuwar amfani da takardun banki, bashi da tsabar kudi na jan ƙarfe a wannan lokacin sun rage darajar, da dogaro da, ƙarfe masu daraja, zinariya da azurfa sun kasance masu mahimmanci ga labarin hakar ma'adinai na zamani.

Saboda bambance-bambance a cikin tsarin zamantakewa, karuwar hakar ma'adanai ya bazu daga Tsakiyar Turai zuwa Ingila a tsakiyar karni na sha shida. A nahiyar, ma'adanai na ma'adinai na kambi ne, kuma an kiyaye wannan haƙƙin sarauta sosai. Amma a Ingila, an ƙuntata haƙƙin hakar ma'adinai na sarauta ga zinariya da azurfa (wanda Ingila ba ta da ajiya) ta hanyar yanke shawara ta shari'a ta 1568 da doka a cikin 1688. tin" data-linkid="270" href="./England" id="mwAVE" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="England">Ingila tana da ƙarfe, zinc, jan ƙarfe, gubar, da ma'adanai. Masu mallakar gidaje waɗanda suka mallaki ƙarfe da kwal a ƙarƙashin dukiyarsu suna da kyakkyawar ƙarfafawa don cire waɗannan ƙarfe ko hayar ajiya da tattara sarauta daga masu aikin ma'adinai. Ingilishi, Jamusanci, da babban birnin Yaren mutanen Holland sun haɗu don tallafawa hakar ma'adinai da tsaftacewa. An kawo daruruwan masu fasaha da ƙwararrun ma'aikata na Jamus; a cikin 1642, wani yanki na baƙi 4,000 suna hakar ma'adinai da narkar da jan ƙarfe a Keswick a cikin tsaunuka na arewa maso yamma.

Amfani da wutar lantarki ta ruwa a cikin nau'ikan ruwa ya kasance mai yawa. An yi amfani da ma'adinan ruwa don murkushe ma'adinai, ɗaga ma'adanai daga shafts, da kuma iska ga tashoshin ta hanyar ba da wutar lantarki ga manyan bellows. An fara amfani da baƙar fata a hakar ma'adinai a Selmecbánya, Masarautar Hungary (yanzu Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia) a cikin 1627.[13] Black foda ya ba da izinin fashewar dutse da ƙasa don sassautawa da kuma bayyana jijiyoyin ma'adinai. Fitarwa ya fi sauri fiye da saita wuta kuma ya ba da damar hakar ma'adinai da ma'adanai da ba za a iya shiga ba a baya.[14] A shekara ta 1762, an kafa ɗayan makarantun hakar ma'adinai na farko a duniya a wannan garin.

Yaduwar karɓar sabbin abubuwan noma kamar ƙarfe, da kuma karuwar amfani da ƙarfe a matsayin kayan gini, ya kasance mai motsawa a cikin babban ci gaban masana'antar ƙarfe a wannan lokacin. Mutanen Espanya galibi suna amfani da abubuwan kirkirar kamar arrastra don yayyafa ma'adinai bayan hakar ma'adanai. Wannan na'urar tana amfani da dabbobi kuma tana amfani da ka'idoji iri ɗaya kamar girbi.[15]

Yawancin ilimin fasahar hakar ma'adinai na zamani ya fito ne daga littattafai kamar Biringuccio's De la pirotechnia kuma, mai yiwuwa mafi mahimmanci, daga Georg Agricola's De re metallica (1556). Wadannan littattafai sun ba da cikakken bayani game da hanyoyin hakar ma'adinai daban-daban da aka yi amfani da su a ma'adanai na Jamusanci da Saxon. Babban batun a cikin ma'adanai na zamani, wanda Agricola ya bayyana dalla-dalla, shine cire ruwa daga ma'adinai. Yayin da masu hakar ma'adinai suka haƙa zurfi don samun damar samun sabbin jijiyoyi, ambaliyar ruwa ta zama babbar matsala. Masana'antar hakar ma'adinai ta zama mafi inganci da wadata tare da kirkirar famfo na inji da na dabbobi. [ana buƙatar ƙa'ida][ana buƙatar hujja]

Karfe na ƙarfe a Afirka ya samo asali ne sama da shekaru dubu huɗu. Zinariya ta zama muhimmiyar kaya ga Afirka a lokacin cinikin zinariya na Sahara daga karni na 7 zuwa karni na 14. Sau da yawa ana sayar da zinariya ga tattalin arzikin Bahar Rum waɗanda ke buƙatar zinariya kuma suna iya samar da gishiri, duk da cewa yawancin Afirka suna da gishiri saboda ma'adanai da albarkatu a cikin Sahara. An yi amfani da cinikin zinariya don gishiri da farko don inganta cinikayya tsakanin tattalin arziki daban-daban.[16] Tun daga Babban Trek a karni na 19, bayan haka, hakar zinariya da lu'u-lu'u a Kudancin Afirka ya sami manyan tasirin siyasa da tattalin arziki. Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Kongo ita ce mafi girma mai samar da lu'u-lu'u a Afirka, tare da kimanin carats miliyan 12 a cikin 2019. Sauran nau'ikan ajiyar hakar ma'adinai a Afirka sun haɗa da cobalt, Bauxite, ƙarfe, kwal, da jan ƙarfe.[17]

Oceania

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An fara hakar zinariya da kwal a Ostiraliya da New Zealand a karni na 19. Nickel ya zama mahimmanci a cikin tattalin arzikin New Caledonia . [18]

A Fiji, a cikin 1934, Emperor Gold Mining Company Ltd. ya kafa ayyukan a Vatukoula, sannan a cikin 1935 ta Loloma Gold Mines, N.L., sannan kuma ta Fiji Mines Development Ltd. (aka Dolphin Mines Ltd.). Wadannan ci gaba sun haifar da "ƙaruwar hakar ma'adinai", tare da samar da zinariya ya karu fiye da sau ɗari, daga 931.4 oz a cikin 1934 zuwa 107,788.5 oz a cikin 1939, tsari na girman sa'an nan kuma ya dace da haɗin haɗin gwiwar jihohin New Zealand da gabashin Australia.

Amurka

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Gudanar da hakar ma'adinai a yankin Kogin Mississippi na Amurka, 1865

A lokacin prehistoric, Amurkawa na farko sun haƙa ƙarfe mai yawa tare da Lake Superior's Keweenaw Peninsula da kuma kusa da Isle Royale; ƙarfe na ƙarfe ya kasance kusa da farfajiya a zamanin mulkin mallaka.[1][2][3] 'Yan asalin ƙasar sun yi amfani da jan ƙarfe na Lake Superior daga akalla shekaru 5,000 da suka gabata; [1] an gano kayan aikin jan ƙarfe, arrowheads, da sauran kayan tarihi waɗanda suka kasance wani ɓangare na cibiyar kasuwanci ta asali. Bugu da kari, an haƙa obsidian, flint, da sauran ma'adanai, an yi aiki, kuma an yi ciniki.[2] Masu binciken Faransanci na farko waɗanda suka haɗu da shafuka [bayyanawa da ake buƙata] ba su yi amfani da ƙarfe ba saboda matsalolin jigilar su, amma an sayar da jan ƙarfe a duk faɗin nahiyar tare da manyan hanyoyin kogi.[2] [ana buƙatar ƙa'ida]

Masu hakar ma'adinai a ma'adinin Tamarack a cikin Ƙasar Copper, Michigan, Amurka, a cikin 1905
Masana'antar hakar ma'adinai, c. 1880-1885. Hotuna na Yammacin Amurka, ɗakin karatu na jama'a na Boston

A farkon tarihin mulkin mallaka na Amurka, "an kwace zinariya da azurfa da sauri kuma an mayar da su Spain a cikin jiragen ruwa na zinariya da na azurfa", zinariya da Azurfa sun samo asali ne daga ma'adanai a Tsakiya da Kudancin Amurka. Turquoise wanda aka rubuta a shekara ta 700 AD an haƙa shi a Amurka ta farko; a cikin Gundumar Ma'adinai ta Cerillos a New Mexico, an cire kimanin tan 15,000 na dutse daga Mt. Chalchihuitl ta amfani da Kayan aikin dutse kafin 1700. "

A shekara ta 1727 Louis Denys (Denis) (1675-1741), sieur de La Ronde - ɗan'uwan Simon-Pierre Denys de Bonaventure da surukin René Chartier - ya ɗauki kwamandan Fort La Pointe a Chequamegon Bay; inda 'yan asalin suka sanar da shi tsibirin jan ƙarfe. La Ronde ta sami izini daga kambin Faransa don gudanar da ma'adinai a cikin 1733, ta zama "ma'adinai na farko a Lake Superior"; shekaru bakwai bayan haka, an dakatar da ma'aikatar ta hanyar barkewar cutar tsakanin kabilun Sioux da Chippewa.

Ma'adinai a Amurka sun zama ruwan dare a karni na 19, kuma Majalisa ta Amurka ta zartar da Dokar Ma'adanai ta 1872 don karfafa ma'adinai na ƙasashen tarayya. Kamar yadda yake tare da California Gold Rush a tsakiyar karni na 19, hakar ma'adinai da karafa masu daraja, tare da kiwo dabbobi, ya zama abin motsawa a fadada Yammacin Amurka zuwa gabar tekun Pacific. Tare da binciken Yamma, sansanonin hakar ma'adinai sun tashi kuma "sun nuna ruhun da ya bambanta, gado mai dorewa ga sabuwar al'umma"; Gold Rushers za su fuskanci irin matsalolin da Land Rushers na Yammacin Yammacin da suka riga su. Tare da taimakon layin dogo, mutane da yawa sun yi tafiya zuwa Yamma don samun damar aiki a hakar ma'adinai. Biranen Yamma kamar Denver da Sakramento sun samo asali ne a matsayin garuruwan hakar ma'adinai.[19]

Lokacin da aka bincika sabbin wurare, yawanci zinariya ce (mai sanyawa sannan kuma lode) sannan azurfa da aka mallaka kuma aka cire su da farko. Sauran karafa galibi suna jira ga layin dogo ko canals, saboda ƙurar zinariya da nuggets ba sa buƙatar narkewa kuma suna da sauƙin ganewa da jigilar kaya.

Zamanin zamani

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Dubi kuma

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Manazarta

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  1. ↑ Services, MSHA Safety (2025-01-20). "A Journey Through Early Mining: Exploring Pre-Industrial Era Mining Practices". MSHA Safety Services (in Turanci). Retrieved 2026-05-06.
  2. ↑ "Cultural Resources – Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern". Swaziland National Trust Commission. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved August 27, 2007.
  3. ↑ "ASA – October 1996: Mining and Religion in Ancient Man". www2.asa3.org. Archived from the original on 2018-10-02. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
  4. ↑ Abdelmaksoud, Kholoud M. (2020). "Al Fawakhir Gold mine as a Geosite, Eastern Desert, Egypt". International Journal of Earth Sciences. 109 (1): 197–199. Bibcode:2020IJEaS.109..197A. doi:10.1007/s00531-019-01811-w.
  5. ↑ Neesse, Thomas (April 2014). "Selective attachment processes in ancient gold ore beneficiation". Minerals Engineering (in Turanci). 58: 52–63. Bibcode:2014MiEng..58...52N. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2014.01.009.
  6. ↑ Crowson, Phillip (March 1996). "The European mining industry". Resources Policy. 22 (1–2): 99–105. doi:10.1016/S0301-4207(96)00025-6.
  7. ↑ "Mining greece ancient mines". www.miningreece.com. 2014-12-10. Archived from the original on 2015-06-12. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
  8. ↑ "Mining Greece Ancient Quarries in Thassos". www.miningreece.com. 2014-12-10. Archived from the original on 2015-06-12. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
  9. ↑ "Mining Greece the Goldmines of Alexander the Great". www.miningreece.com. 2014-12-10. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
  10. ↑ "The Independent, 20 Jan. 2007: The end of a Celtic tradition: the last gold miner in Wales". News.independent.co.uk. 2007-01-20. Archived from the original on July 6, 2008. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
  11. ↑ "Web Hosting, Reseller Hosting & Domain Names from Heart Internet". romans-in-britain.org.uk. Archived from the original on July 20, 2010.
  12. ↑ "Chapter 7: Medieval Silver and Gold". Mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-07-14. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
  13. ↑ Heiss, Andreas G.; Oeggl, Klaus (March 2008). "Analysis of the fuel wood used in Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age copper mining sites of the Schwaz and Brixlegg area (Tyrol, Austria)". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 17 (2): 211–221. Bibcode:2008VegHA..17..211H. doi:10.1007/s00334-007-0096-8.
  14. ↑ Craddock, Paul T. (1996). "The use of Firesetting in the Granite Quarries of South India". The Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical Society. 13 (1).
  15. ↑ Young, Otis E. (1965). "The Spanish Tradition in Gold and Silver Mining". Arizona and the West. 7 (4): 299–314. JSTOR 40167137.
  16. ↑ "The Trans-Saharan Gold Trade (7th–14th Century)". The Metropolitan Museum. October 2000. Archived from the original on 25 June 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  17. ↑ Published by M. Garside (2021-10-20). "Mining industry in Africa - statistics & facts". Statista. Retrieved 2022-03-19.
  18. ↑ "Guide to business 2025 – Page 33". Province Sud (New Caledonia). Retrieved 2026-05-19.
  19. ↑ "Mining in the West Development Articles and Essays Meeting of Frontiers Digital Collections Library of Congress". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
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