Harshen Iyali
Iyalin harshe rukuni ne na harsunan da ke da alaƙa ta hanyar zuriya daga harshen kakanni guda ɗaya ko harshen iyaye, wanda ake kira proto-language na wannan iyali. Kalmar “iyali” tana nuna tsarin bishiyar asalin harshe a cikin ilimin harshe na tarihi, wanda ke yin amfani da misalan kwatanta harsuna da mutane a cikin bishiyar iyali ta halitta, ko kuma a cikin wani gyare-gyare na gaba, zuwa nau'in halittar a cikin bishiyar phylogenetic na taxonomy na juyin halitta. Don haka masana ilimin harshe suna bayyana harsunan ’ya’ya a cikin dangin harshe da cewa suna da alaƙa ta asali.[1]Bambance-bambancen harshe zuwa yaren ’ya’ya yawanci yana faruwa ne ta hanyar rarrabuwar kawuna, tare da yarukan yanki daban-daban na yaren yaren da al’ummomin masu magana daban-daban ke magana suna samun canjin harshe daban-daban kuma ta haka suka zama yare daban-daban daga juna.[2]
Iyalan harshen da suka fi iya magana su ne dangin Indo-Turai, wanda ya haɗa da yawancin yarukan da ake magana da su na ƙasashen Turai (kamar Ingilishi da Sifen) da Kudancin Asiya (kamar Hindi, Urdu da Bengali); da dangin Sino-Tibet, musamman saboda yawan masu magana da Sinanci na Mandarin a kasar Sin.[3]Iyalin harshe na iya ƙunsar kowane nau'i na harsuna: wasu iyalai, irin su Australiya da dangin Niger-Congo, sun ƙunshi ɗaruruwan harsuna daban-daban, [3]yayin da wasu harsuna, waɗanda ake kira keɓancewa, ba a san suna da alaƙa da kowane harshe ba. don haka ya zama iyali mai yare daya kacal.
An kafa membobin harsuna a cikin dangin harshe ta hanyar bincike a cikin ilimin harshe. Ana iya gano harsunan da ke da alaƙa ta asali ta wurin riƙon da aka raba; wato suna raba kamanceceniya na tsari waɗanda ba za a iya bayyana su ba saboda kwatsam, ko kuma tasirin hulɗar harshe (kamar aro ko haɗuwa), don haka dole ne su zama sifofin da suka gada daga kakanninsu guda ɗaya. Duk da haka, wasu nau'ikan harsunan na iya kasancewa sun samo asali ne daga kakanni guda amma sun bambanta sosai da juna ta yadda ba a iya gano dangantakarsu; kuma ba a yi nazarin wasu harsuna dalla-dalla ba don a rarraba su, don haka ba a san danginsu ba.
Manyan Harsuna Iyalai
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Babban labarin: Jerin iyalai harshe
Ƙididdiga na adadin iyalai na harshe a duniya na iya bambanta sosai. A cewar Ethnologue akwai harsunan mutane 7,151 masu rai da aka rarraba a cikin iyalai 142 na harsuna daban-daban.[4] [5]Lyle Campbell (2019) ya gano jimillar iyalai masu zaman kansu na harshe 406, gami da keɓewa.[6]
Ethnologue 24 (2021) ya lissafa iyalai masu zuwa waɗanda ke ɗauke da aƙalla 1% na sanannun harsuna 7,139 a duniya:[7]
Niger–Congo (harsuna 1,542) (21.7%)
Australiya (harsuna 1,257) (17.7%)
Trans–New Guinea (harsuna 482) (6.8%)
Sino-Tibet (harsuna 455) (6.4%)
Indo-Turai (harsuna 448) (6.3%)
Ostiraliya (harsuna 381) (5.4%)
Afro-Asiatic (harsuna 377) (5.3%)
Nilo-Sahara (harsuna 206) (2.9%)
Oto-Manguean (harsuna 178) (2.5%)
Austroasiatic (harsuna 167) (2.3%)
Tai-Kadai (harsuna 91) (1.3%)
Dravidian (harsuna 86) (1.2%)
Tupia (harsuna 76) (1.1%)
Glottolog 4.7 (2022) ya lissafa waɗannan a matsayin iyalai mafi girma, na yaruka 8,565 (ban da yarukan alamun, pidgins, da harsunan da ba za a iya raba su ba):[8]
Atlantic–Congo (harsuna 1,408)
Australiya (harsuna 1,273)
Indo-Turai (harsuna 584)
Sino-Tibet (harsuna 501)
Afro-Asiatic (harsuna 379)
Nukiliya Trans–New Guinea (harsuna 317)
Pama–Nyungan (harsuna 250)
Oto-Manguean (harsuna 181)
Austroasiatic (harsuna 158)
Tai-Kadai (harsuna 95)
Dravidian (harsuna 82)
Arawakan (77 harsuna)
Mande (harsuna 75)
Tupia (harsuna 71)
Ƙididdigar harshe na iya bambanta sosai dangane da abin da ake ɗaukar yare; Misali Lyle Campbell ya kirga harsunan Otomanguean guda 27 kacal, duk da cewa shi, Ethnologue da Glottolog su ma sun yi rashin jituwa kan yarukan da ke cikin iyali.
Dangantakar kwayoyin Halitta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Harsuna biyu suna da dangantaka ta dabi'a, kuma suna cikin dangin harshe ɗaya, idan duka biyun sun fito ne daga kakanni guda ta hanyar canjin harshe, ko ɗayan ya fito daga ɗayan. Kalmomi da tsarin juyin halittar harshe sun kasance masu zaman kansu, kuma ba su dogara da kalmomi, fahimta, da ka'idojin da suka shafi kwayoyin halitta a ma'anar halitta ba, don haka, don guje wa rudani, wasu masana ilimin harshe sun fi son kalmar dangantaka ta asali.[9][10] [11]: 184
Misali na dangantakar jinsin harshe zai kasance cikin harsunan Romance, kamar su Sifen, Faransanci, Italiyanci, Fotigal, Romanian da sauran su, duk sun fito ne daga harshen Latin da ake magana na tsohuwar Roma.[bayanin kula 1][12]
Akwai nau'i mai kama da kama da bishiyar harshe da kuma bishiyar halittar zuriyar ɗan adam[13] da aka tabbatar ta kididdiga.Harsunan da aka fassara dangane da bishiyar phylogenetic na harsunan ɗan adam ana watsa su sosai a tsaye (ta zuriyarsu) sabanin a kwance (ta sararin samaniya).[14].
Kafa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A wasu lokatai, an ba da shaida ɗaya daga cikin gungun harsuna masu alaƙa daga kakanni ɗaya a cikin tarihin tarihi. Misali, haka lamarin yake ga dangin yaren Romance, inda a cikin Mutanen Espanya, Italiyanci, Fotigal, Romaniya, da Faransanci duk sun fito daga Latin, da kuma dangin harshen Jamus ta Arewa, ciki har da Danish, Swedish, Norwegian da Icelandic, waɗanda suka fito. sun raba zuriya daga Ancient Norse. Latin da tsohuwar Norse duka an tabbatar da su a cikin rubuce-rubucen rubuce-rubuce, kamar yadda yawancin matakan tsaka-tsaki ke tsakanin waɗannan harsunan kakanni da zuriyarsu ta zamani.
A wasu lokuta, dangantakar kwayoyin halitta tsakanin harsuna ba a tabbatar da kai tsaye ba. Misali, harsunan Romance da harsunan Jamus na Arewa su ma suna da alaƙa da juna, kasancewarsu ƙabila ne na dangin harshen Indo-Turai, tun da Latin da Tsohon Norse an yi imani da cewa sun fito ne daga wani tsohon harshe mai suna Proto-Indo- Bature; duk da haka, babu wata shaida kai tsaye ta Proto-Indo-Turai ko bambance-bambancen sa cikin yarukan zuriyarsu da ya tsira. A irin waɗannan yanayi, ana samun alaƙar kwayoyin halitta ta hanyar yin amfani da hanyar kwatancen nazarin harshe.
Domin a gwada hasashen cewa harsuna biyu suna da alaƙa, hanyar kwatanta ta fara ne da tarin kalmomi guda biyu waɗanda ake hasashen su zama kwatankwacinsu: watau kalmomi a cikin harsuna masu alaƙa waɗanda aka samo daga kalma ɗaya a cikin harshen kakanni da aka raba. Biyu na kalmomi waɗanda suke da irin wannan furci da ma'ana a cikin harsunan biyu galibi ƙwararrun ƴan takara ne don ƙima. Dole ne mai binciken ya yi watsi da yiwuwar cewa kalmomin biyu suna kama da juna kawai saboda kwatsam, ko kuma saboda wani ya aro kalmomin daga ɗayan (ko daga harshen da ke da alaƙa da ɗayan). An hana kamannin kamanni ta kasancewar manyan tarin nau'ikan kalmomi tsakanin harsunan biyu masu nuna irin kamannin kamannin sauti. Da zarar an kawar da kwatankwacin kamanceceniya da aro kamar yadda zai yiwu bayani kan kamanceceniya a cikin sauti da ma'anar kalmomi, ragowar bayanin shine tushen gama gari: ana tunanin cewa kamanceniyar ta faru ne saboda zuriya daga kakanni guda, kuma kalmomin a haƙiƙa sun kasance cognates, ma'ana. Dole ne harsunan su kasance da alaƙa.[15]
Tsangwama na harshe da aro
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Lokacin da harsuna ke hulɗa da juna, ɗayansu na iya yin tasiri ga ɗayan ta hanyar tsoma baki cikin harshe kamar aro. Misali, Faransanci ya rinjayi Turanci, Larabci ya rinjayi Farisa, Sanskrit ya rinjayi Tamil, Sinanci kuma sun yi tasiri ga Jafananci ta wannan hanyar. Duk da haka, irin wannan tasirin ba ya zama (kuma ba ma'auni ba) dangantakar kwayoyin halitta tsakanin harsunan da abin ya shafa. Tsangwamar harshe na iya faruwa tsakanin harsunan da ke da alaƙa ta kud-da-kud, tsakanin harsunan da ke da alaƙa (kamar Ingilishi da Faransanci, waɗanda ke da alaƙa da harsunan Indo-Turai) da kuma tsakanin harsunan da ba su da dangantaka ta kwayoyin halitta.
Matsaloli
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Wasu keɓancewa ga tsarin dangantakar kwayoyin halitta mai sauƙi na harsuna sun haɗa da ware harshe da gauraye, pidgin da harsunan Creole.
Harsuna masu gauraya, pidgins da harsunan Creole sun ƙunshi nau'ikan harsuna na musamman na kwayoyin halitta. Ba sa sauka a layi ko kai tsaye daga harshe ɗaya kuma ba su da kakanni ɗaya.
Keɓance harsuna ne waɗanda ba za a iya tabbatar da cewa suna da alaƙa da kowane harshe na zamani ba. A matsayin maƙasudi, kowane harshe ya keɓe shi ma yana samar da dangin harshensa - dangin jinsin da ke tattare da yare ɗaya kawai. Wani misali da aka saba ba da misali shi ne Basque, wanda ke samar da dangin harshe da kansa; amma akwai wasu misalai da yawa a wajen Turai. A kan sikelin duniya, rukunin yanar gizon Glottolog ya ƙidaya jimillar iyalai harsuna 427 a duniya, gami da ware 182.[16]
Monogenesis
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Wata ka’idar da ke da cece-kuce game da dangantakar kwayoyin halitta a tsakanin harsuna ita ce monoogenesis, ra’ayin cewa duk sanannun harsuna, ban da creoles, pidgins da harsunan kurame, sun fito ne daga yaren kakanni guda.[17] Idan hakan gaskiya ne, yana nufin duk harsuna (ban da pidgins, creoles, da yaren kurame) suna da alaƙa ta asali, amma a yawancin lokuta, dangantakar na iya yin nisa sosai don a iya gano su. Madadin bayani ga wasu mahimman abubuwan da aka lura da su tsakanin harsuna sun haɗa da ka'idodin haɓakawa, masu alaƙa da haɓakar ilimin halitta na ƙarfin harshe yayin da yaro ya girma daga jariri.
Tsarin dangi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Iyalin harshe wani yanki ne na monophyletic; Weran da membobinta suka samo asali daga tsoffin magabata, duka zuriyar da aka haɗa a cikin iyali. Don haka, kalmar iyali alama ce ga rikicin zamanin. Za'a iya raba iyalai harshe zuwa karancin raka'a Phylogetic, wani lokacin ana kiransa "rassa" ko "subfamilies" na iyali; Misali, yaruka na Jamusanci sune subfamily ne na dangin Indo-Turai. Subfullies suna raba tsoffin da suka saba da magabaci na manyan iyali. Proso-Jamus, da magabata na kowa na Jamus, daga zuriyar Proto-Indo-Isigen ne, gama gari mai yawansu na dangin Tarayyar Indo-Tarayyar Turai. A cikin babban iyali, ana iya gano sabbin abubuwa ta hanyar da maganganu da magabatansu na farko.
Wasu takaddun haraji sun ƙuntata kalmar dangi zuwa wani matakin, amma akwai karancin yarda kan yadda ake yin hakan. Wadanda suke da irin waɗannan lakunan kuma subdivide rassan zuwa kungiyoyi, da ƙungiyoyi a cikin hadaddun. Babban matakin (I.e., mafi girma) ana kiran dangi mafi girma ko kuma stock. Matsowa da rassan ga juna ne, da kuma kusancin yaruka za su danganta. Wannan yana nufin idan reshe-yare shine rassan da aka rassa huɗu kuma akwai yaran 'yar'uwa ta biyu.
A wani lokaci ana amfani da kalmar macrofamily ko kuma superfamily wani lokaci ana amfani dashi don bambance-bambancen yare wanda a matsayin matsayin da aka samu na Phylogtantic hanyoyin da aka samu.
Manazarta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ https://books.google.com/books?id=ePQ5CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA340
- ↑ https://books.google.com/books?id=e-PxyCpnnzEC&pg=PA336
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/largest-families
- ↑ https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/how-many-languages
- ↑ https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/largest-families
- ↑ https://doi.org/10.1387%2Fasju.20195
- ↑ https://www.ethnologue.com/ethnoblog/welcome-24th-edition
- ↑ https://glottolog.org/glottolog/family
- ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Luca_Cavalli-Sforza
- ↑ https://zenodo.org/record/580172
- ↑ http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2014_HHL_Trees-waves-linkages_Diversification.pdf
- ↑ http://www.ethnologue.com/
- ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3497766
- ↑ http://authors.library.caltech.edu/59840/1/17290.full.pdf
- ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family#cite_note-16
- ↑ https://glottolog.org/glottolog/family
- ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanna_Nichols