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Ilimin magunguna

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Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Ilimin magunguna
field of study (en) Fassara, academic discipline (en) Fassara, field of work (en) Fassara da academic major (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare nahealth sciences (en) Fassara
Bangare nalife sciences (en) Fassara
Masana'antahealth care industry (en) Fassara
Has characteristic (en) Fassaramedical attribute (en) Fassara
Tarihin maudu'ihistory of medicine (en) Fassara
Entry in abbreviations table (en) Fassaratıp. da Med
WordLift URL (en) Fassarahttp://data.thenextweb.com/tnw/entity/medicine
Mastodon instance URL (en) Fassarahttps://med-mastodon.com
Hannun riga daalternative medicine (en) Fassara

Magunguna shine kimiyya da kuma aiki [1] na kula da marasa lafiya, sarrafa ganewar asali, hangen nesa, rigakafi, magani da kuma warware rauni su ko Cutar, yayin inganta lafiyarsu su. Magunguna sun ƙunshi ayyuka daban-daban na kiwon lafiya waɗanda suka samo asali don kiyayewa da dawo da lafiya ta hanyar rigakafi da maganin rashin lafiya da kamuwa da cuta. magunguna zamani suna amfani da kimiyyar kiwon lafiya, bincike na kiwon lafiya (biomedical research), kwayoyin halitta, da Fasahar kiwon lafiya don ganowa, magancewa, da hana rauni da cututtuka, yawanci ta hanyar magunguna daban-daban ko tiyata, amma kuma ta hanyar warkewa kamar su psychotherapy, splints na waje da traction, na'urorin kiwon lafiya.[2]

An yi amfani da magani tun zamanin da ba a san shi ba, kuma a mafi yawan wannan lokacin fasaha ne (wani yanki na kerawa da ƙwarewa), sau da yawa yana da alaƙa da imani na addini da falsafar al'adun yankin. Misali, wani likita zai yi amfani da ganye kuma ya yi addu'o'i don warkarwa, ko kuma wani masanin falsafa da likita na dā zai yi amfani le jini bisa ga ka'idodin ban dariya, ko kuma ban dariya huɗu. A cikin ƙarni na baya-bayan nan, tun zuwan kimiyya ta zamani, yawancin magani sun zama haɗuwa da fasaha da kimiyya (duka asali da aikace-aikace, a ƙarƙashin laima na kimiyyar likita). Misali, yayin da fasahar sutura ta zama fasaha da aka koya ta hanyar aiki, kimiyya tana ba da ilimin abin da ke faruwa a matakin salula da kwayoyin a cikin kyallen da ake sutura.

Hanyoyin magani na pre-cientific, wanda yanzu aka sani da maganin gargajiya ko maganin gargajiya, ana amfani da shi ba tare da maganin kimiyya ba kuma ana kiransu madadin magani. Sauran jiyya a waje da maganin kimiyya tare da damuwa na ɗabi'a, aminci da inganci ana kiransu quackery ko kasancewa bisa kimiyya ta gefe.[3]

 

Magana

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Magunguna (: /ˈmɛdsɪn/ i, US: /ˈmeredɪsɪn/i) kimiyya ce da jiki ganewar asali, hangen nesa, magani, da rigakafi Cutar. Kalmar "magunguna" ta samo asali ne daga Latin medicus, ma'ana " likita". [lower-alpha 1] Kalmar "physical" kanta, daga abin da "physician" ya samo asali, tsohuwar kalmar ce ga abin da yanzu ake kira magani, da kuma fagen magani.

Ayyukan asibiti

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Elizabeth Blackwell, likitan mata na farko a Amurka ta kammala karatu daga SUNY Upstate (1847)

Samun kiwon lafiya da aikin asibiti sun bambanta a duk faɗin duniya saboda bambance-bambance na yanki a cikin al'adu da fasaha. Magungunan kimiyya na zamani sun bunƙasa sosai kuma sun bazu a Yammacin duniya, yayin da a wasu yankuna masu ƙarancin albarkatu - gami da sassan Afirka, Tsibirin Pacific na Oceania, Kudu maso gabashin Asiya, da Latin Amurka - yawan jama'a galibi suna dogaro da maganin gargajiya. Wadannan ayyuka sun kunshi tsarin horo na rarraba kuma sun bambanta sosai a cikin tallafin kwarewa; saboda haka, suna iya rasa kulawa ta tsari ko tabbaci mai ƙarfi don ingancin asibiti.

A cikin kasashe masu tasowa, ba a amfani da maganin da ya dogara da shaida (EBM) a duk duniya a cikin aikin asibiti; alal misali, binciken da aka yi a 2007 na sake dubawa ya gano cewa kusan kashi 49% na tsoma baki na likita ba su da isasshen shaida don tallafawa ko dai fa'ida ko lahani.[5] Koyaya, likitocin da ke amfani da shiga tsakani ba tare da inganci ba tare da isasshen hujja, gaskiya, ko yardar haƙuri na iya keta ka'idar bioethical na rashin namiji, babban ka'idar ka'idojin kiwon lafiya da ke da alaƙa da tarihin rantsuwar Hippocratic, wanda ke jaddada aikin farko don "na farko, ba su da lahani".

A cikin aikin asibiti na zamani, likitoci da masu aiki a matsakaici kamar mataimakan likitoci suna tantance marasa lafiya don ganowa, haɓaka, magani, da hana cututtuka ta amfani da hukunci na asibiti. Gamuwa ta farko ta likita tare da mai haƙuri yawanci tana farawa tare da bita game da Tarihin kiwon lafiya na mai haƙuri da rikodin kiwon lafiya, sannan kuma hira ta likita da gwajin jiki. Ana amfani da na'urorin kiwon lafiya na asali (misali, stethoscope, mai rage harshe) yawanci. Bayan bincika alamomi da yin hira da alamomi, likita na iya ba da umarnin gwajin likita (misali, Gwajin jini), yin biopsy, ko rubuta magunguna ko wasu magunguna. Hanyoyin ganewar asali daban-daban suna taimakawa wajen kawar da yanayin bisa ga bayanin da aka bayar. A lokacin gamuwa, sanar da mai haƙuri yadda ya kamata game da duk abubuwan da suka dace wani muhimmin bangare ne na dangantakar da ci gaban amincewa a cikin mahallin dangantakar likita da mai haƙƙin haƙuri. Ana yin rikodin gamuwar likita a cikin rikodin likita, wanda shine takardar doka a yankuna da yawa.[6] Tattaunawar bin diddigin na iya zama ɗan gajeren amma suna bin wannan tsari na gaba ɗaya, kuma ƙwararru suna bin irin wannan tsari. Binciken da magani na iya ɗaukar 'yan mintoci kaɗan ko 'yan makonni, dangane da rikitarwa na batun.

Abubuwan da suka shafi hira ta likita da gamuwa sune:

  • Babban korafi (CC): dalilin ziyarar likita ta yanzu. Waɗannan su ne alamun. Suna cikin kalmomin mai haƙuri kuma ana rubuta su tare da tsawon lokaci na kowannensu. Har ila yau ana kiranta Babban damuwa ko gabatar da korafi.
  • Ayyuka na yanzu: sana'a, abubuwan sha'awa, abin da mai haƙuri ke yi a zahiri da ƙwarewa da ba ƙwarewa ba.
  • Tarihin iyali (FH): jerin cututtukan da ke cikin iyali waɗanda zasu iya shafar mai haƙuri. Ana amfani da itacen iyali a wasu lokuta.
  • Tarihin rashin lafiya na yanzu (HPI): tsari na lokaci-lokaci na abubuwan da suka faru na alamun bayyanar cututtuka da ƙarin bayani game da kowane alama. Ana iya rarrabe shi daga tarihin rashin lafiya na baya, sau da yawa ana kiransa tarihin kiwon lafiya na baya (PMH). Tarihin kiwon lafiya ya ƙunshi HPI da PMH.
  • Magunguna (Rx): waɗanne magungunan da mai haƙuri ke ɗauka ciki har da waɗanda aka ba da umarni, da Magungunan gida, da kuma madadin Magungunan ganye ko magunguna. Hakanan ana yin rikodin rashin lafiyan.
  • Tarihin kiwon lafiya na baya (PMH / PMHx): matsalolin kiwon lafiya a lokaci guda, asibiti da ayyukan da suka gabata, raunin, Cututtukan cututtuka ko allurar rigakafi, tarihin sanannun rashin lafiyan.
  • <i id="mw0w">binciken tsarin</i> (ROS) ko bincike na tsarin: saitin ƙarin tambayoyin da za a yi tambaya, wanda za'a iya rasa shi a kan HPI: bincike na gaba ɗaya (kun lura da duk wani asarar nauyi, canji a cikin ingancin bacci, zazzabi, kumfa da bumps? da dai sauransu), sannan tambayoyi game da manyan tsarin jikin jiki (zuciya, huhu, hanyar narkewa, hanyar fitsari, da dai sauransu).
  • Tarihin zamantakewa (SH): wurin haihuwa, mazauna, tarihin aure, matsayi na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki, halaye (ciki har da abinci, magunguna, taba, barasa).

Binciken jiki shine binciken mai haƙuri don alamun kiwon lafiya na cututtukan da ke da ma'ana kuma ana iya lura da su, sabanin alamun da mai haƙuri ya ba da kansu kuma ba lallai ba ne a lura da su.[7] Mai ba da kiwon lafiya yana amfani da gani, ji, taɓawa, kuma wani lokacin ƙanshi (misali, a cikin kamuwa da cuta, Uremia, ketoacidosis na ciwon sukari). Ayyuka huɗu sune tushen jarrabawar jiki: bugawa, palpation (ji), percussion (taɓawa don ƙayyade halaye na resonance), da auscultation (sauraron), gabaɗaya a cikin wannan tsari, kodayake auscultation yana faruwa kafin percussion da palpation don kimantawa na ciki.[8]

Binciken asibiti ya haɗa da nazarin: [9]

  • Abdomen da rectum
  • Cardiovascular (zuciya da jijiyoyin jini)
  • Bayyanar mai haƙuri da takamaiman alamun cutar (yanayin abinci mai gina jiki, kasancewar jaundice, pallor ko clubbing)
  • Genitalia (da ciki idan mai haƙuri yana da ciki ko zai iya kasancewa da ciki)
  • Kai, ido, kunne, hanci, da makogwaro (HEENT) [9]
  • Musculoskeletal (ciki har da kashin baya da iyaka)
  • Neurological (sanin, wayar da kan jama'a, kwakwalwa, hangen nesa, jijiyoyin kwakwalwa, kashin baya da jijiyoyin gefe)
  • Psychiatric (daidaitawa, yanayin tunani, yanayi, shaidar rashin fahimta ko tunani).
  • Rashin numfashi (babban hanyoyin iska da huhu) [9]
  • Fata
  • Alamomi masu mahimmanci ciki har da tsawo, nauyi, zafin jiki, Hawan jini, bugun jini, saurin numfashi, da satar iskar oxygen ta haemoglobin [9]

Wataƙila zai mai da hankali kan wuraren da aka nuna a tarihin kiwon lafiya kuma bazai haɗa da duk abin da aka jera a sama ba.

Shirin magani na iya haɗawa da yin odar ƙarin gwaje-gwaje na dakin gwaje-gaje na likita da nazarin hotunan likita, fara magani, turawa ga kwararre, ko lura mai lura. Ana iya ba da shawarar bin diddigin. Dangane da shirin inshorar kiwon lafiya da tsarin kulawa mai sarrafawa, nau'o'i daban-daban na "bincike na amfani", kamar izinin gwaje-gwaje na farko, na iya sanya shingen kan samun dama ga ayyuka masu tsada.[10]

Tsarin yanke shawara na likita (MDM) ya haɗa da bincike da kira na duk bayanan da ke sama don fitowa da jerin yiwuwar ganewar asali (bincike na bambanci), tare da ra'ayin abin da ake buƙatar a yi don samun tabbataccen ganewar asali wanda zai bayyana matsalar mai haƙuri.

A ziyarar da ta biyo baya, ana iya maimaita wannan tsari a taƙaice don samun kowane sabon tarihi, alamomi, binciken jiki, dakin gwaje-gwaje ko sakamakon hoto, ko shawarwari na kwararru.

Cibiyoyin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Color fresco of an ancient hospital setting
Asibitin Santa Maria della Scala, fresco na Domenico di Bartolo, 1441-1442

Ana gudanar da magani na zamani, gabaɗaya, a cikin Tsarin kiwon lafiya. Shari'a, takaddun shaida, da tsarin kuɗi an kafa su ne ta hanyar gwamnatoci, wanda kungiyoyin kasa da kasa suka kara a wasu lokuta, kamar majami'u. Halayen kowane tsarin kiwon lafiya da aka ba su suna da tasiri sosai a kan hanyar da ake ba da kiwon lafiya.

Tun daga zamanin d ̄ a, karfafawa na Kirista kan aikin sadaka ya haifar da ci gaban aikin jinya da asibitoci, kuma Cocin Katolika a yau ya kasance mafi girma mai ba da sabis na kiwon lafiya a duniya. Kasashen masana'antu masu ci gaba (ban da Amurka) [11] [12] da kuma kasashe masu tasowa da yawa suna ba da sabis na kiwon lafiya ta hanyar tsarin kiwon lafiya na duniya wanda ke da niyyar tabbatar da kulawa ga kowa ta hanyar tsarin kula da kiwon lafiya mai biyan kuɗi ɗaya ko inshorar kiwon lafiya masu zaman kansu ko hadin gwiwa. An yi niyyar wannan ne don tabbatar da cewa dukkan jama'a suna da damar samun kulawa ta likita bisa ga buƙata maimakon ikon biyan kuɗi. Bayarwar na iya zama ta hanyar ayyukan kiwon lafiya masu zaman kansu, asibitoci da asibitocin gwamnati, ko kungiyoyin agaji, galibi haɗuwa da duka uku.

Yawancin al'ummomin kabilanci ba su ba da tabbacin kiwon lafiya ga yawan jama'a gaba ɗaya. A cikin irin waɗannan al'ummomin, kiwon lafiya yana samuwa ga waɗanda za su iya biyan kuɗin, sun inshora da kansu (ko dai kai tsaye ko a matsayin wani ɓangare na kwangilar aiki), ko kuma ana iya rufe su da kulawa da gwamnati ko kabilar ke tallafawa kai tsaye.

collection of glass bottles of different sizes
Ambulaf ɗin miyagun ƙwayoyi na zamani

Bayyanawa na bayanai wani abu ne da ke bayyana tsarin isar da kayayyaki. Samun bayanai game da yanayi, jiyya, inganci, da farashi yana shafar zaɓin marasa lafiya / masu amfani kuma, sabili da haka, abubuwan da masu sana'a ke motsawa. Duk da yake tsarin kiwon lafiya na Amurka ya shiga cikin wuta saboda rashin budewa, [13] sabon doka na iya karfafa budewa mafi girma. Akwai tashin hankali tsakanin bukatar nuna gaskiya da damuwa game da sirrin mai haƙuri da kuma cin zarafin kasuwanci na bayanan likita. Masu ba da shawara suna jayayya cewa buɗewa yana taimaka wa marasa lafiya su yanke shawara mai kyau, yayin da masu sukar ke gargadi cewa zai iya fallasa bayanan da suka dace kuma ya gayyaci amfani da masu inshora, ma'aikata, ko masu kasuwa. Daidaita lissafi tare da sirri ya kasance babban kalubale.

Kwararrun masu kiwon lafiya da ke ba da kulawa a cikin magani sun ƙunshi sana'o'i da yawa, kamar likitoci, ma'aikatan jinya, masu ilimin halayyar dan adam. Wadannan sana'o'i za su sami nasu ka'idojin ɗabi'a, ilimi na sana'a, da kuma jikin. An tsara sana'ar kiwon lafiya daga hangen nesa na zamantakewa.

Bayarwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ana rarraba ba da kulawa ta likita zuwa rukunin kulawa na farko, na biyu, da na uku.[14]

photograph of three nurses
Nurses a Kokopo, Gabashin New Britain, Papua New Guinea

likitoci, mataimakan likitoci, ma'aikatan jinya, ko wasu masu sana'a na kiwon lafiya waɗanda suka fara hulɗa da mai haƙuri da ke neman magani ko kulawa.[15] Wadannan suna faruwa a ofisoshin likitoci, ayyukan likita, asibitoci, Gidajen tsofaffi, makarantu, gidajen marasa lafiya, da kuma wasu wuraren da ke kusa da inda marasa lafiya ke zaune, aiki ko karatu. Kimanin kashi 90% na ziyarar likita za a iya magance su yadda ya kamata kuma ta hanyar mai ba da kulawa ta farko (s). [16] Ziyarar kulawa ta farko na iya haɗawa da maganin ƙananan cututtuka, cututtuka masu tsanani ko marasa tsanani, kulawa ta rigakafi, da ilimin kiwon lafiya. Kulawa na farko ana ba da umarni ga lafiyar dukan jama'a kuma ta haka ne masu ba da kulawa ga marasa lafiya na kowane zamani da jinsi.

Kwararrun likitoci ne ke ba da sabis na kiwon lafiya na sakandare a ofisoshin su, ayyuka ko asibitoci, ko a asibitocin al'umma, ga marasa lafiya da mai ba da kulawa ta farko ya fara ganowa ko kula da mara lafiya.[17] 'Rahoton' ana yin su ne daga waɗancan marasa lafiya waɗanda ke buƙatar ƙwarewar ƙwarewa ta musamman, ko takamaiman hanyoyin da ƙwararru suka yi. Ayyukan kulawa na sakandare sun haɗa da kulawa ta ambulatory da sabis na asibiti, sassan gaggawa, wasu Magungunan kulawa mai zurfi, wasu tiyata da sabis masu alaƙa, maganin jiki, aiki da isarwa, sassan endoscopy, dakin gwaje-gwaje da sabis na hotunan likita, cibiyoyin hospice, da sauransu dangane da tsarin sabis na kiwon lafiya wanda ake isar da kulawa. Wasu masu ba da kulawa ta farko na iya kula da marasa lafiya a asibiti da kuma isar da jarirai a cikin yanayin kulawa na biyu.

Ana ba da sabis na kiwon lafiya na uku ta ƙwararrun masu ba da sabis a cikin manyan asibitoci na musamman ko cibiyoyin kiwon lafiya ta yanki, waɗanda ke da kayan aiki da wuraren bincike da magani waɗanda ba a samu a asibitocin gida (sau da yawa ƙananan) ba. Wannan yana ba da damar magani da kulawa ga marasa lafiya tare da rikice-rikice ko gaggawa ko yanayin kiwon lafiya mai tsanani, wanda hakan na iya buƙatar ƙarin ƙwarewa (gami da ƙungiyoyi masu yawa) da albarkatu (kayan aiki, ma'aikata, kwanakin gado) don magance su yadda ya kamata. Kulawa ta uku na iya haɗawa da wanda aka bayar a cibiyoyin ƙonewa ko Cibiyoyin rauni, sabis na sashin jarirai masu ci gaba, transplantation na gabobin jiki, ciki mai haɗari da haihuwa na yara, radiation oncology, da sauran nau'ikan ƙwararru da kulawa mai tsanani.

Kula da kiwon lafiya na zamani ya dogara da adanawa da amfani da bayanai, gami da game da wani mai haƙuri - har yanzu ana kiyaye shi a yawancin saitunan kiwon lafiya akan takarda 'rikodin kiwon lafiya', amma ana ƙara ƙarawa a zamanin yau ta hanyar lantarki.

A cikin ƙasashe masu karamin karfi, kiwon lafiya na zamani sau da yawa yana da tsada sosai ga matsakaicin mutum. Masu bincike kan manufofin kiwon lafiya na kasa da kasa sun ba da shawarar cewa a cire "kudin mai amfani" a cikin waɗannan yankuna don tabbatar da samun dama; duk da haka, koda tare da cire wajibai na biyan haƙuri, manyan farashi da shingen sun kasance ga matalauta da marasa lafiya don samun isasshen kulawa.[18]

Rabuwa da ba da magani da rarrabawa aiki ne a cikin magani da kantin magani inda likitan da ke ba da takardar magani ya bambanta da likitan da ya ba da magani ga mai haƙuri. A kasashen Yammacin duniya akwai ƙarni na al'ada da aiki da ke bambanta likitoci daga likitoci, da kuma sana'o'i biyu daban-daban da suka bunkasa. A kasashe da yawa na Asiya, a gefe guda, al'ada ce ga likitoci su isar da magunguna kai tsaye ga marasa lafiya, aƙalla a wasu lokuta.[19] Hakanan ana amfani da wannan samfurin a yamma: musamman ga yanayin da aka warkar da shi (misali, waɗanda ke buƙatar maganin rigakafi na gaba ɗaya), a wurare masu nisa, tare da al'ummomin marasa lafiya masu rauni, da kuma ƙananan ko wuraren kiwon lafiya.

Rassan

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Zane na Marguerite Martyn (1918) na ma'aikaciyar jinya mai ziyara a St. Louis, Missouri, tare da magani da jarirai

Yin aiki tare a matsayin ƙungiyar hadin gwiwa, Kwararrun masu kiwon lafiya da yawa ban da likitoci suna da hannu a cikin isar da kiwon lafiya na zamani. Misalan sun hada da: ma'aikatan jinya, masu kula da lafiyar gaggawa da likitoci, masana kimiyya na dakin gwaje-gwaje, likitocin magunguna, likitoci na jiki, likitojin numfashi, likitofin magana, likitocin aiki, radiographers, masu kulawar abinci, da Injiniyoyin halittu, likitociyar likita, likitota, Mataimakin likitan tiyata, likitan tiyatiko na tiyata.

Yankin da kimiyyar da ke tallafawa maganin ɗan adam sun mamaye wasu fannoni da yawa. Mai haƙuri da aka kwantar da shi a asibiti yawanci yana ƙarƙashin kulawar takamaiman ƙungiyar bisa ga babban matsalar gabatarwar su, misali, ƙungiyar ilimin zuciya, waɗanda za su iya hulɗa da wasu ƙwarewa, misali, tiyata, radiology, don taimakawa ganowa ko magance babban matsala ko duk wani rikitarwa / ci gaba.

Likitoci suna da ƙwarewa ta ƙwarewa ƙwarewa a cikin wasu rassan magani, waɗanda aka jera a ƙasa. Akwai bambance-bambance daga ƙasa zuwa ƙasa game da ƙwarewar wasu ƙwarewa suna ciki.

Hoton likitan Masar na dā Imhotep, likitan farko daga zamanin d ̄ a da aka sani da suna

Duniyar Dā

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An samo rubutun kiwon lafiya na farko da aka sani a duniya a tsohuwar birnin Ebla na Siriya kuma sun koma 2500 KZ. Sauran rubuce-rubuce na farko game da magani an gano su daga maganin Masar na dā, maganin Babila, maganin Ayurvedic (a cikin Yankin Indiya), maganin gargajiya na kasar Sin (Alternative medicine) wanda ya riga ya zama maganin gargajiya na gargajiya na kasar Sinanci na zamani), da kuma maganin Girka na dā da maganin Roman.

A Misira, Imhotep (3rd millennium KZ) shine likita na farko a tarihi da aka sani da suna. Tsohon Rubutun likitancin Masar shine Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus daga kusan 2000 KZ, wanda ke bayyana cututtukan mata. Edwin Smith Papyrus wanda ya samo asali ne daga 1600 KZ aiki ne na farko kan tiyata, yayin da Ebers Papyrus wanda aka samo asali daga 1500 KZ yayi kama da littafi kan magani.

A Indiya, tsohuwar rubutun tiyata da aka sani, Sushruta_Samhita" id="mwBHM" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita wanda likitan tiyata Sushruta ya rubuta, ya bayyana ayyukan tiyata da yawa, gami da nau'ikan tiyata ta filastik na farko da kuma hanyoyin hanawa don kayan aikin tiyata.[20] Rubuce-rubucen farko na asibitoci da aka keɓe sun fito ne daga Mihintale a Sri Lanka inda aka sami shaidar wuraren kula da magani ga marasa lafiya.[21][22]

Mosaic a ƙasa na Asclepieion na Kos, wanda ke nuna Hippocrates, tare da Asklepius a tsakiya (karni na biyu zuwa uku)

A Girka, likitan Girka na dā Hippocrates, "mahaifin magani na zamani", [23] ya kafa tushe don hanyar da ta dace da magani. Hippocrates ya gabatar da rantsuwar Hippocratic ga likitoci, wanda har yanzu yana da mahimmanci kuma ana amfani da shi a yau, kuma shine na farko da ya rarraba cututtuka kamar masu tsanani, masu tsanani, da annoba, da kuma amfani da kalmomi kamar, "ƙuntata, sake dawowa, ƙuduri, rikici, paroxysm, ƙaruwa, da warkewa". Likitan Girka Galen ya kasance daya daga cikin manyan likitocin tiyata na duniya ta dā kuma ya yi aiki mai yawa, gami da tiyata na kwakwalwa da ido. Bayan faduwar Daular Romawa ta Yamma da Farkon Zamanin Tsakiya, al'adar Girka ta magani ta shiga raguwa a Yammacin Turai, kodayake ta ci gaba ba tare da katsewa ba a Daular Roman ta Gabas (Byzantine).

Zamanin Tsakiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Rubutun Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah na Ali al-Ridha, Imam na takwas na Musulmai Shia. Rubutun ya ce: "Rubuce-rubucen zinariya a magani wanda Imam Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha ya aiko, zaman lafiya ya kasance a kansa, ga al-Ma'mun".

Ma'anar asibiti a matsayin ma'aikata don bayar da kulawa ta likita da yiwuwar warkarwa ga marasa lafiya saboda manufofin sadaka ta Kirista, maimakon kawai wurin da za su mutu, ya bayyana a Daular Byzantine.

Kodayake Galen ya san manufar Uroscopy, bai ga muhimmancin amfani da shi don gano cutar ba. Ya kasance a ƙarƙashin Byzantines tare da likitoci irin su Theophilus Protospatharius cewa sun fahimci yiwuwar uroscopy don tantance cuta a lokacin da babu microscope ko stethoscope. Wannan aikin ya bazu zuwa sauran Turai.

Bayan 750 AZ, duniyar musulmi tana da ayyukan Hippocrates, Galen da Sushruta da aka fassara zuwa Larabci, kuma Likitocin Musulunci sun shiga cikin wasu muhimman bincike na likita. Shahararrun likitocin Musulunci sun hada da masanin ilimin Farisa, Avicenna, wanda, tare da Imhotep da Hippocrates, an kuma kira shi "mahaifin magani".[24] Ya rubuta The Canon of Medicine wanda ya zama misali na likita a yawancin jami'o'i Turai na zamani, wanda aka dauka daya daga cikin shahararrun littattafai a tarihin magani. [25] Sauran sun hada da Abulcasis, Avenzoar, Ibn al-Nafis, da Averroes.[26][27][28][29] Likitan Farisa Rhazes na ɗaya daga cikin na farko da ya yi tambaya game da ka'idar Girka ta ban dariya, wanda duk da haka ya kasance mai tasiri a cikin maganin Yamma da na Musulunci na zamani. Wasu kundin aikin Rhazes Al-Mansuri, wato "On Surgery" da "A General Book on Therapy", sun zama wani ɓangare na tsarin karatun likita a jami'o'in Turai. Bugu da ƙari, an bayyana shi a matsayin likita, mahaifin likitan yara, kuma majagaba na ilimin ido.[30] Misali, shi ne na farko da ya gane yadda pupil din ido yake amsawa ga haske.[31] Asibitocin Bimaristan na Farisa misali ne na farko na asibitocin jama'a.

A Turai, Charlemagne ya ba da umarnin cewa ya kamata a haɗa asibiti ga kowane babban coci da gidan ibada kuma masanin tarihi Geoffrey Blainey ya kwatanta ayyukan Cocin Katolika a cikin kiwon lafiya a lokacin Tsakiyar Tsakiya zuwa farkon yanayin jin dadin jama'a: "Ya gudanar da asibitoci ga tsofaffi da marayu ga matasa; asibitocin marasa lafiya na kowane zamani; wuraren da kuturta; da kuma masauki ko masauki inda mahajjata zasu iya siyan abinci da abinci mai arha". Ya samar da abinci ga jama'a a lokacin yunwa kuma ya rarraba abinci ga matalauta. Wannan tsarin jin dadin cocin ya tallafawa ta hanyar tattara haraji a kan babban sikelin da kuma mallakar manyan gonaki da dukiya. An lura da tsarin Benedictine don kafa asibitoci da asibitocin a cikin masallacin su, haɓaka ganye na likita da zama manyan masu ba da kulawa na gundumominsu, kamar yadda yake a babban Abbey na Cluny. Har ila yau, Ikilisiyar ta kafa cibiyar sadarwa ta makarantun cocin da jami'o'i inda ake karatun magani. Schola Medica Salernitana a Salerno, yana neman ilmantarwa na likitocin Girka da Larabawa, ya zama makarantar likita mafi kyau a Turai ta zamani.

Asibitin Santa Maria della Scala na Siena, daya daga cikin tsofaffin asibitocin Turai. A lokacin Tsakiyar Tsakiya, Cocin Katolika ya kafa jami'o'i don farfado da nazarin kimiyya, yana amfani da ilmantarwa na likitocin Girka da Larabawa a cikin nazarin magani.

Koyaya, Black Death na ƙarni na goma sha huɗu da goma sha biyar sun lalata Gabas ta Tsakiya da Turai, har ma an yi jayayya cewa Yammacin Turai ya fi tasiri wajen murmurewa daga cutar fiye da Gabas ta tsakiya.[lower-alpha 2] A farkon zamanin zamani, muhimman adadi na farko a fannin kiwon lafiya da jikin mutum sun fito a Turai, gami da Gabriele Falloppio da William Harvey.

Babban canji a cikin tunanin likita shine kin amincewa da hankali, musamman a lokacin Black Death a cikin ƙarni na 14 da 15, na abin da za a iya kira "ikon gargajiya" hanyar kimiyya da magani. Wannan shine ra'ayin cewa saboda wasu fitattun mutane a baya sun ce dole ne wani abu ya kasance haka, to haka shine yadda yake, kuma duk abin da mutum ya lura da akasin haka ya kasance abin mamaki (wanda ya yi daidai da irin wannan canji a cikin al'ummar Turai gabaɗaya - duba Copernicus ya ƙi ra'ayoyin Ptolemy akan ilimin taurari). Likitoci kamar Vesalius sun inganta ko kuma sun karyata wasu ra'ayoyin daga baya. Babban kundin da daliban likitanci da ƙwararrun likitoci suka yi amfani da su sune De materia medica da Pharmacopoeia .

Zamani na zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Paul-Louis Simond yana yin allurar rigakafin annoba a Karachi, 1898

Magungunan dabbobi sun kasance, a karo na farko, da gaske sun rabu da maganin ɗan adam a cikin 1761, lokacin da likitan dabbobi na Faransa Claude Bourgelat ya kafa makarantar dabbobi ta farko a duniya a Lyon, Faransa. Kafin wannan, likitocin likitoci sun kula da mutane da sauran dabbobi.

Binciken kimiyyar kimiyyar zamani (inda sakamakon ke iya gwadawa kuma ana iya sakewa shi) ya fara maye gurbin al'adun Yammacin farko bisa ga herbalism, Girkanci "hume hudu" da sauran irin waɗannan ra'ayoyin kafin zamani. Zamanin zamani ya fara ne da binciken Edward Jenner na allurar rigakafin kyanda a ƙarshen karni na 18 (wanda aka yi wahayi zuwa gare shi ta hanyar variolation da ta samo asali a tsohuwar kasar Sin), binciken Robert Koch a kusa da 1880 na yaduwar cutar ta hanyar kwayoyin cuta, sannan kuma binciken maganin rigakafi a kusa da 1900.

Lokacin zamani na bayan karni na 18 ya kawo karin masu bincike daga Turai. Daga Jamus da Austria, likitoci Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner da Otto Loewi sun ba da gudummawa sosai. A cikin Ƙasar Ingila, Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick da Florence Nightingale ana ɗaukar su da muhimmanci. Likitan Mutanen Espanya Santiago Ramón da Cajal an dauke shi uban kimiyyar kwakwalwa ta zamani.

Daga New Zealand da Australia sun zo Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey, da Frank Macfarlane Burnet.

Sauran da suka yi muhimmiyar aiki sun hada da William Williams Keen, William Coley, James D. Watson (Amurka); Salvador Luria (Italiya); Alexandre Yersin (Switzerland); Kitasato Shibasaburō (Japan); Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca (Faransa); Adolfo Lutz (Brazil); Nikolai Korotkov (Rasha); Sir William Osler (Kanada); da Harvey Cushing (Amurka).

Yayinda kimiyya da fasaha suka bunkasa, magani ya zama mai dogaro da magunguna. A cikin tarihi da kuma a Turai har zuwa ƙarshen karni na 18, ba kawai an yi amfani da kayan shuka a matsayin magani ba, har ma da dabbobi (ciki har da mutum) sassan jiki da ruwa.[33] Magungunan magunguna sun samo asali ne daga herbalism kuma wasu magunguna har yanzu ana samo su daga tsire-tsire (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, Digoxin, <i id="mwBaU">vinca</i> alkaloids, [34] taxol, hyoscine, da dai sauransu). [35] Edward Jenner da Louis Pasteur ne suka gano Allurar rigakafi.

Magungunan rigakafi na farko shine arsphenamine (Salvarsan) wanda Paul Ehrlich ya gano a cikin 1908 bayan ya lura cewa kwayoyin cuta sun ɗauki dyes masu guba waɗanda ƙwayoyin ɗan adam ba su yi ba. Babban aji na farko na maganin rigakafi shine Magungunan sulfa, wanda masana sunadarai na Jamus suka samo asali daga azo dyes.

Ilimin ilimin likitanci ya zama mai ƙwarewa; fasahar kimiyyar zamani tana ba da damar ƙwayoyin da aka yi niyya ga takamaiman hanyoyin ilimin lissafi don haɓaka, wani lokacin an tsara su don jituwa da jiki don rage tasirin gefe. Genomics da ilimin kwayoyin Halitta na ɗan adam da juyin halitta na mutum suna da tasiri sosai a kan magani, kamar yadda aka gano kwayoyin halitta masu yawa na yawancin cututtukan kwayoyin halitta, kuma ci gaban dabarun a cikin ilmin halitta, juyin halitta, da kwayoyin halitta suna rinjayar fasahar kiwon lafiya, aiki da yanke shawara.

Magungunan da suka danganci shaida ƙungiya ce ta zamani don kafa mafi inganci na algorithms na aiki (hanyoyin yin abubuwa) ta hanyar amfani da sake dubawa na tsari da meta-analysis. Wannan motsi yana sauƙaƙe ta hanyar kimiyyar bayanai ta duniya ta zamani, wanda ke ba da damar tattara yawancin shaidun da ke akwai kamar yadda zai yiwu kuma a bincika su bisa ga daidaitattun ladabi waɗanda aka rarraba ga masu ba da kiwon lafiya. Haɗin gwiwar Cochrane yana jagorantar wannan motsi. Binciken 2001 na sake dubawa na tsarin Cochrane 160 ya nuna cewa, a cewar masu karatu biyu, kashi 21.3% na sake duban sun kammala rashin isasshen shaida, kashi 20% sun kammala shaidar babu tasiri, kuma kashi 22.5% sun kammala sakamako mai kyau.[36]

Inganci, inganci, da samun dama

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Magungunan da suka danganci shaida, rigakafin Kuskuren likita (da sauran "iatrogenesis"), da kuma guje wa Kula da lafiya mara amfani sune fifiko a cikin tsarin kiwon lafiya na zamani. Wadannan batutuwa suna haifar da mahimman kulawar siyasa da manufofin jama'a, musamman a Amurka inda ake la'akari da kiwon lafiya da tsada sosai amma ma'aunin kiwon lafiya na yawan jama'a ya rage irin waɗannan ƙasashe.[37]

Kudin kiwon lafiya ya bambanta da ƙasa, wanda ke haifar da bambance-bambance a samun kulawa da samun magunguna.[38][39] Rarraba kiwon lafiya ya bambanta da ƙasa. Yawancin ƙasashe masu tasowa suna ba da kulawa ta kiwon lafiya ga dukan 'yan ƙasa, tare da wasu banbanci kamar Amurka inda ƙuntatawa akan ɗaukar inshorar kiwon lafiya na iya iyakance farashi.[40]

Magungunan Telemedicine

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Telenursing yana fuskantar ci gaba mai mahimmanci a duniya saboda dalilai kamar buƙatar rage farashin kiwon lafiya, ƙaruwa da yawan marasa lafiya, da faɗaɗa ɗaukar kiwon lafiya zuwa yankuna masu nisa, yankuna masu ƙauyuka, ƙananan, ko ƙananan jama'a. Telenursing na iya taimakawa wajen magance karancin ma'aikatan jinya, rage lokacin tafiya da nisa, da rage shigar asibiti.[41]
  • Kula da Telepalliative wata hanya ce mai nisa don inganta ingancin rayuwa da kuma sauƙaƙa wahala ga mutanen da ke da cututtuka masu tsanani, masu rikitarwa kuma sau da yawa masu kisa. Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya (WHO) ta ba da shawarar haɗa kulawa mai laushi da wuri-wuri don kowane rashin lafiya mai tsanani da kisa. Kula da telepalliative yawanci yana amfani da fasahar sadarwa kamar taron bidiyo, saƙo don bin diddigin, da ƙididdigar alamun dijital ta hanyar tambayoyin da ke haifar da faɗakarwa ga masu sana'ar kiwon lafiya.[42]
  • Telepharmacy ya haɗa da isar da kulawa ta magunguna ta hanyar sadarwa ga marasa lafiya a wuraren da hulɗa kai tsaye tare da likitan magani bazai yiwu ba ko wahala.[43]
  • Telepsychiatry (lafiya ta jiki) tana amfani da fasahar sadarwa don samar da kulawa ta hankali mai nisa ga mutanen da ke fama da yanayin lafiyar kwakwalwa.[44]
  • Telepsychology shine amfani da fasahar sadarwa don gudanarwa mai nisa na gwaje-gwaje na tunanin mutum da kuma maganin kwakwalwa.[45]
  • Teleneurotherapy yana amfani da kwamfutoci da fasahar sadarwa don isar da neurotherapy daga nesa.[46] Bincike ya nuna cewa motsa jiki na tsari daga na'urorin lantarki na yau da kullun, kamar allunan tare da belun kunne, na iya magance tsarin juyayi da ya ji rauni a kan layi ta hanyar daidaita filastik na neuronal. Shaida ta nuna cewa teleneurotherapy na iya inganta maganin jijiyoyin jiki idan ya haɗa da tasirin warkewa na tasirin tsarin abiotic na dakarun jiki tare da mahimman sigogi na hulɗar uwa da tayin. Binciken da aka yi kwanan nan ya nuna tasirin warkewa yayin aiwatar da hanyar APIN a cikin maganin kan layi na marasa lafiya tare da yanayin jijiyoyi daban-daban.[46][47][48][49]
  • Telenutrition yana nufin amfani da taron bidiyo ko tarho don samar da shawarwari ta kan layi ta masu kula da abinci mai gina jiki ko masu cin abinci.[50]
  • Telerehabilitation (ko e-rehabilitation) shine isar da ayyukan farfadowa akan hanyoyin sadarwa da Intanet. Yawancin ayyuka sun fada cikin rukuni biyu: kimantawar asibiti (bincike ƙwarewar aiki na mai haƙuri a cikin mahallinsu) da kuma maganin asibiti.[51]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Saunders, John (June 2000). "The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science". Med Humanit. 26 (1): 18–22. doi:10.1136/mh.26.1.18. ISSN 1468-215X. PMC 1071282. PMID 12484313. S2CID 73306806.
  2. ↑ "Dictionary, medicine". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 December 2013.
  3. ↑ Bell, D. (1999-12-01). "Secret science". Science and Public Policy (in Turanci). 26 (6): 450–450. doi:10.1093/spp/26.6.450. ISSN 0302-3427.
  4. ↑ "medicine". Etym.Online. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007.
  5. ↑ El Dib RP, Atallah AN, Andriolo RB (August 2007). "Mapping the Cochrane evidence for decision making in health care". Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice. 13 (4): 689–692. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2753.2007.00886.x. PMID 17683315.
  6. ↑ Addison K, Braden JH, Cupp JE, Emmert D, Hall LA, Hall T, Hess B, Kohn D, Kruse MT, McLendon K, McQueary J, Musa D, Olenik KL, Quinsey CA, Reynolds R, Servais C, Watters A, Wiedemann LA, Wilkins M, Wills M, Vogt NE (September 2005). "Update: guidelines for defining the legal health record for-disclosure purposes". Journal of AHIMA. 76 (8): 64A–64G. PMID 16245584. Archived from the original on 9 March 2008.
  7. ↑ Nordqvist, Christian (26 August 2009). "What Are Symptoms? What Are Signs?". Medical News Today. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014.
  8. ↑ "Assessing patients effectively: Here's how to do the basic four techniques". Nursing2014. 8 (2): 6. 2006. doi:10.1097/00152193-200611002-00005.
  9. 1 2 3 4 "Clinical examination". The Free Dictionary. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
  10. ↑ Grembowski DE; Diehr P; Novak LC; Roussel AE; Martin DP; Patrick DL; Williams B; Ulrich CM (August 2000). "Measuring the "managedness" and covered benefits of health plans". Health Services Research. 35 (3): 707–734. PMC 1089144. PMID 10966092.
  11. ↑ "Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations". Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science. 14 January 2004. Archived from the original on 19 October 2009.
  12. ↑ Battista, John R.; McCabe, Justine (June 4, 1999). "The Case For Single Payer, Universal Health Care for the United States". Cthealth.server101.com. Archived from the original on 23 April 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2009.
  13. ↑ Sipkoff, Martin (January 2004). "Transparency called key to uniting cost control, quality improvement". Managed Care. 13 (1): 38–42. PMID 14763279. Archived from the original on 17 February 2004. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
  14. ↑ "Primary, Secondary and Tertiary HealthCare – Arthapedia". www.arthapedia.in. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  15. ↑ "Types of health care providers: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  16. ↑ Rao, Mala; Pilot, Eva (February 13, 2014). "The missing link – the role of primary care in global health". Global Health Action. 7 (1). doi:10.3402/gha.v7.23693. PMC 3926992. PMID 24560266. Retrieved April 21, 2026.
  17. ↑ "Secondary Health Care". International Medical Corps (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  18. ↑ Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B (April 2013). "Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 91 (4): 277–282. doi:10.2471/BLT.12.110015. PMC 3629451. PMID 23599551.
  19. ↑ Chou YJ, Yip WC, Lee CH, Huang N, Sun YP, Chang HJ (September 2003). "Impact of separating drug prescribing and dispensing on provider behaviour: Taiwan's experience". Health Policy and Planning. 18 (3): 316–329. doi:10.1093/heapol/czg038. PMID 12917273.
  20. ↑ Dave, Tirth; Habte, Alexander; Vora, Vidhi; Sheikh, Mahin Qudeer; Sanker, Vivek; Gopal, Sri Vengadesh (2024-04-05). "Sushruta: The Father of Indian Surgical History". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery - Global Open (in Turanci). 12 (4). doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000005715. ISSN 2169-7574. PMC 11000756 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38596573 Check |pmid= value (help).
  21. ↑ Aluvihare A (November 1993). "Rohal Kramaya Lovata Dhayadha Kale Sri Lankikayo". Vidhusara Science Magazine: 5.
  22. ↑ "Resource mobilization in Sri Lanka's health sector" (PDF). Harvard School of Public Health & Health Policy Programme, Institute of Policy Studies. 9 February 1997. p. 19. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2001. Retrieved 16 July 2009.
  23. ↑ Grammaticos PC, Diamantis A (2008). "Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus". Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 11 (1): 2–4. PMID 18392218.
  24. ↑ Becka J (January 1980). "[The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture. Abu Ali ibn Sina (980–1037)]". Casopis Lekaru Ceskych (in Cek). 119 (1): 17–23. PMID 6989499.
  25. ↑ "Avicenna 980–1037". Hcs.osu.edu. Archived from the original on 7 October 2008. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
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  30. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "tschanz-2003".
  31. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "elgood-2010".
  32. ↑ Dols, Michael W. (1977). The Black Death in the Middle East. Princeton. pp. 119, 285–290. OCLC 2296964.
  33. ↑ Cooper, Peter (2004). "Medicinal properties of body parts". The Pharmaceutical Journal. 273 (7330): 900–902. Archived from the original on 3 December 2008.
  34. ↑ van Der Heijden R, Jacobs DI, Snoeijer W, Hallard D, Verpoorte R (March 2004). "The Catharanthus alkaloids: pharmacognosy and biotechnology". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 11 (5): 607–628. doi:10.2174/0929867043455846. PMID 15032608.
  35. ↑ Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Temml V, Wang L, Schwaiger S, Heiss EH, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Breuss JM, Bochkov V, Mihovilovic MD, Kopp B, Bauer R, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H (December 2015). "Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review". Biotechnology Advances. 33 (8): 1582–1614. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001. PMC 4748402. PMID 26281720.
  36. ↑ Ezzo J, Bausell B, Moerman DE, Berman B, Hadhazy V (2001). "Reviewing the reviews. How strong is the evidence? How clear are the conclusions?". International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care. 17 (4): 457–466. doi:10.1017/S0266462301107014. PMID 11758290. S2CID 21855086.
  37. ↑ Bentley TG, Effros RM, Palar K, Keeler EB (December 2008). "Waste in the U.S. Health care system: a conceptual framework". The Milbank Quarterly. 86 (4): 629–659. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2008.00537.x. PMC 2690367. PMID 19120983.
  38. ↑ Pichon-Riviere, Andres; Drummond, Michael; Palacios, Alfredo; Garcia-Marti, Sebastián; Augustovski, Federico (2023). "Determining the efficiency path to universal health coverage: cost-effectiveness thresholds for 174 countries based on growth in life expectancy and health expenditures". The Lancet Global Health. Elsevier BV. 11 (6): e833–e842. doi:10.1016/s2214-109x(23)00162-6. ISSN 2214-109X. Retrieved 1 June 2025.
  39. ↑ "WHO | Tracking universal health coverage: 2017 Global Monitoring Report". WHO. Archived from the original on 8 October 2020. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
  40. ↑ "Coverage for health care | READ online". OECD iLibrary (in Turanci). 4 November 2015. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
  41. ↑ "Nurses Happier Using Telecare, Says International Survey". eHealth Insider. 15 June 2005. Archived from the original on 18 June 2006. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
  42. ↑ Finucane, Anne M.; O'Donnell, Hannah; Lugton, Jean; Gibson-Watt, Tilly; Swenson, Connie; Pagliari, Claudia (2021-04-06). "Digital health interventions in palliative care: a systematic meta-review". npj Digital Medicine. 4 (1): 64. doi:10.1038/s41746-021-00430-7. ISSN 2398-6352. PMC 8024379 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33824407 Check |pmid= value (help).
  43. ↑ Lowry SJ, Kay CN, Marsom EN, Park JS, Poole S, Page AT (2020). "Optimising health outcomes via pharmacist delivered telehealth medicines management: a systematic review". Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Research. Wiley. 50 (5): 377–390. doi:10.1002/jppr.1695. ISSN 1445-937X. S2CID 225070505.
  44. ↑ Schuster, Raphael; Fischer, Elena; Jansen, Chiara; Napravnik, Nathalie; Rockinger, Susanne; Steger, Nadine; Laireiter, Anton-Rupert (2022). "Blending Internet-based and tele group treatment: Acceptability, effects, and mechanisms of change of cognitive behavioral treatment for depression". Internet Interventions. 29. doi:10.1016/j.invent.2022.100551. PMC 9204733 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 35722084 Check |pmid= value (help).
  45. ↑ Wadsworth HE, Dhima K, Womack KB, Hart J, Weiner MF, Hynan LS, Cullum CM (December 2018). "Validity of Teleneuropsychological Assessment in Older Patients with Cognitive Disorders". Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 33 (8): 1040–1045. doi:10.1093/arclin/acx140. PMC 6887729. PMID 29329363.
  46. 1 2 Val Danilov, Igor; Medne, Dace; Mihailova, Sandra (3 July 2025). "Natural Neurostimulation for Chronic Pain Management: A Case Series of 3 Patients with Dysmenorrhea and Menstrual Migraine". OBM Neurobiology. 09 (3): 1–11. doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2503290.
  47. ↑ Val Danilov, Igor; Medne, Dace; Mihailova, Sandra (January 2025). "Modulating neuroplasticity with acoustic photonic intellectual neurostimulation (APIN): a case study on neurodegenerative disorder". Brain Stimulation. 18 (1): 561. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2024.12.1005.
  48. ↑ Mihailova, Sandra; Medne, Dace; Val Danilov, Igor (January 2025). "Acoustic photonic intellectual neurostimulation (APIN) in dysmenorrhea management: a case study on an adolescent". Brain Stimulation. 18 (1): 510. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2024.12.860.
  49. ↑ Medne, Dace; Val Danilov, Igor; Mihailova, Sandra (January 2025). "The effect of acoustic and photonic intervention combined with mental load on chronic headaches: a case study". Brain Stimulation. 18 (1): 542–543. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2024.12.955.
  50. ↑ Costantino, Andrea; Roncoroni, Leda; Noviello, Daniele; Nandi, Nicoletta; Lombardo, Vincenza; Scricciolo, Alice; Scaramella, Lucia; Vecchi, Maurizio; Elli, Luca (13 April 2021). "Nutritional and Gastroenterological Monitoring of Patients With Celiac Disease During COVID-19 Pandemic: The Emerging Role of Telemedicine and Point-of-Care Gluten Detection Tests". Frontiers in Nutrition. 8. doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.622514. PMC 8076748 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33928109 Check |pmid= value (help).
  51. ↑ Keaton L, Pierce LL, Steiner V, Lance K (October 2004). "An E-rehabilitation Team Helps Caregivers Deal with Stroke". The Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice. Ijahsp.nova.edu. 2 (4). ISSN 1540-580X. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
  1. ↑ Etymology: Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., from ars medicina Samfuri:Gloss, from medicus Samfuri:Gloss.[4] Cf. mederi Samfuri:Gloss, etym.Samfuri:Fix-span Samfuri:Gloss, from PIE base *med- Samfuri:Gloss. Cf. Script error: The function "langx" does not exist. Samfuri:Gloss, Script error: The function "langx" does not exist. Samfuri:Gloss
  2. ↑ Michael Dols has shown that the Black Death was much more commonly believed by European authorities than by Middle Eastern authorities to be contagious; as a result, flight was more commonly counseled, and in urban Italy quarantines were organized on a much wider level than in urban Egypt or Syria.[32]
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