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Sabuwar Masarautar Masar

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Sabuwar Masarautar Masar
Wuri
Babban birni Memphis, Egypt, Pi-Ramesses (en) Fassara, Thebes, Egypt, Amarna (en) Fassara da Thebes, Egypt
Yawan mutane
Addini Ancient Egyptian religion
Labarin ƙasa
Bangare na history of ancient Egypt (en) Fassara
Bayanan tarihi
Mabiyi Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (en) Fassara
Ta biyo baya Third Intermediate Period of Egypt (en) Fassara

Sabon Masarautar, wanda kuma ake kira Daular Masar, ita ce tsohuwar ƙasar Masar tsakanin karni na 16 BC da karni na 11 BC. Wannan lokacin tsohuwar tarihin Masar ya rufe Daular goma sha takwas,Na goma sha tara, da Na ashirin. Ta hanyar radiocarbon dating, an kafa Sabon Masarautar tsakanin 1570 BC da 1544 BC.[1] Sabon Masarautar ta biyo bayan Lokaci na Tsakiya na Biyu kuma Lokaci na Musamman na Uku ya maye gurbinsa. Lokaci ne mafi wadata ga mutanen Masar kuma ya nuna mafi girman ikon Masar.

A cikin 1845, ra'ayin "Sabon Mulki" a matsayin daya daga cikin "zamanin zinariya" guda uku masanin Jamus Baron von Bunsen ne ya kirkiro shi; ma'anar asali za ta samo asali sosai a cikin ƙarni na 19 da 20.[2] Sashe na baya na wannan lokacin, a ƙarƙashin Daular goma sha tara (1295-1189 BC) da Daular ashirin (1189-1069 BC), an kuma san shi da Lokacin Ramesside. An sanya masa suna ne bayan Fir'auna goma sha ɗaya waɗanda suka ɗauki sunan Ramesses, bayan Ramesses I, wanda ya kafa Daular goma sha tara, da jikansa Ramesses II, mai mulkin mallaka mafi tsawo.

Wataƙila a sakamakon mulkin ƙasashen waje na Hyksos a lokacin Tsakanin Lokaci na Biyu, Sabon Masarautar ta ga fadada tarihi a cikin Levant, don haka yana nuna girman yankin Masar. Hakazalika, don mayar da martani ga hare-haren da Kushites suka kai, wadanda suka jagoranci hare-hare zuwa Misira a lokacin Tsakanin Tsakanin Na Biyu, [3] [4] sarakunan Sabon Masarautar sun ji an tilasta su fadada zuwa Nubia da kuma riƙe yankuna masu yawa a Gabas ta Tsakiya, musamman a kan iyakar Levantine.

Tarihi

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Matsakaicin iyakokin Daular Masar 1450 BC

Tashi da Ɗauki

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Daular goma sha takwas ta haɗa da wasu sanannun sarakunan Masar, ciki har da Ahmose I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaton, da Tutankhamun .

An dauki Ahmose I a matsayin wanda ya kafa daular goma sha takwas. Ya ci gaba da kamfen ɗin mahaifinsa Seqenenre Tao da Kamose a kan Hyksos har sai da ya sake haɗa ƙasar. Ahmose zai ci gaba da kamfen a Levant, gidan Hyksos, don hana duk wani mamayewa na gaba a Misira.[5]

Ahmose ya biyo bayan Amenhotep I, wanda ya yi yakin neman zabe a Nubia kuma Thutmose I ya biyo baya. Thutmosis I ya yi yakin basasa a Levant kuma ya kai har zuwa Yufiretis, don haka ya zama Fir'auna na farko da ya haye kogi.[6] A lokacin wannan kamfen ɗin, sarakunan Siriya sun bayyana goyon baya ga Thutmose. Koyaya, bayan ya dawo, sun dakatar da haraji kuma sun fara ƙarfafawa daga hare-hare na gaba.[7]

Hatshepsut na ɗaya daga cikin Fir'auna mafi iko na wannan daular. Ita 'yar Thutmose I ce kuma matar sarauta ta Thutmosis II. Bayan rasuwar mijinta, ta yi mulki tare da ɗansa ta hanyar ƙaramar matarsa, Thutmose III, wacce ta hau gadon sarauta tun tana yarinya kusan shekaru biyu, amma a ƙarshe ta yi mulki a matsayinta na sarki. Hatshepsut ta gina sosai a cikin haikalin Karnak a Luxor da kuma ko'ina cikin Misira kuma ta sake kafa hanyoyin cinikayya da aka rushe a lokacin mulkin Hyksos na Lower Egypt a lokacin Tsakanin Lokaci na Biyu, don haka ta gina arzikin Daular goma sha takwas. Ta kula da shirye-shirye da kudade don aikin zuwa Land of Punt . Bayan mutuwarta, bayan da ta sami ƙwarewa mai mahimmanci a kan jagorancin soja ga Hatshepsut, Thutmose III ya ɗauki mulki.

Thutmose III expanded Egypt's army and wielded it with great success to consolidate the empire created by his predecessors. This resulted in a peak in Egypt's power and wealth during the reign of Amenhotep III. The term pharaoh, originally the name of the king's palace, became a form of address for the person who was king during his reign (c. 1479–1425 BC).

Masana tarihi sun yi la'akari da shi a matsayin masanin soja, Thutmose III ya gudanar da akalla kamfen 16 a cikin shekaru 20.[8] Ya kasance mai mulkin fadadawa.[9] An rubuta cewa ya kama birane 350 a lokacin mulkinsa kuma ya ci yawancin Gabas ta Tsakiya daga Yufiretis zuwa Nubia a lokacin yakin basasa goma sha bakwai da aka sani. Shi ne Fir'auna na farko bayan Thutmose I da ya haye Yufiretis, yana yin hakan a lokacin yakin da ya yi da Mitanni. Ya ci gaba da arewa ta hanyar yankin da ke cikin biranen da ba a ci nasara ba na Aleppo da Karchemish kuma da sauri ya haye Kogin Yufiretis a cikin jiragensa, ya dauki Sarkin Mitannian gaba ɗaya da mamaki.[10]

Mafi arziki daga cikin dukkan sarakunan wannan daular shine Amenhotep III, wanda ya gina Haikali na Luxor, Gundumar Monthu a Karnak da babban Haikali na Mutuwa. Amenhotep III ya kuma gina fadar Malkata, mafi girma da aka gina a Misira.

Ɗaya daga cikin sanannun sarakuna na goma sha takwas shine Amenhotep IV, wanda ya canza sunansa zuwa Aten" id="mwew" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaton don girmama Aten, wakiltar allahn Masar, Ra. Bautarsa ga Aten a matsayin allahn kansa sau da yawa ana fassara shi azaman misali na farko na tarihi na allahntaka ɗaya. Matar Akhenaten, Nefertiti, ta ba da gudummawa sosai ga sabon shugabancinsa a addinin Masar. Nefertiti ya kasance mai ƙarfin zuciya don yin al'ada ga Aten. An ambaci himmar addini ta Akhenaten a matsayin dalilin da ya sa aka rubuta shi da matarsa daga tarihin Masar. A karkashin mulkinsa, a cikin karni na goma sha huɗu KZ, Fasahar Masar ta bunƙasa a cikin sabon salon (duba Lokacin Amarna).

A ƙarshen Daular goma sha takwas, matsayin Masar ya canza sosai. Tare da taimakon rashin sha'awar Akhenaten a harkokin kasa da kasa, Hittites sun sannu a hankali suka fadada tasirin su zuwa Levant don zama babban iko a siyasar kasa da kasa - ikon da Seti I da dansa Ramesses II za su fuskanta a lokacin Daular goma sha tara.

Mambobin biyu na karshe na Daular goma sha takwas - Ay da Horemheb - sun zama sarakuna daga matsayi na jami'ai a fadar sarauta, kodayake Ay na iya kasancewa kawun mahaifiyar Akhenaten kuma ɗan zuriyar Yuya da Tjuyu.

Ay na iya auren gwauruwar Great Royal Wife da yarinyar 'yar'uwar Tutankhamun, Ankhesenamun, don samun iko; ba ta rayu da daɗewa ba. Daga nan ne Ay ta auri Tey, wanda da farko, ya kasance mai kula da Nefertiti.

Sarautar Ay ba ta da tsawo. Wanda ya gaje shi shi ne Horemheb, janar a lokacin mulkin Tutankhamun, wanda Fir'auna ya yi niyya a matsayin magajinsa idan ba shi da 'ya'ya da suka tsira, wanda ya faru.[11] Horemheb na iya karbar kursiyin daga Ay a juyin mulki. Kodayake an kira ɗan Ay ko ɗan sarki Nakhtmin a matsayin mahaifinsa ko Yarima na mahaifinsa, Nakhtmin da alama ya mutu a lokacin mulkin Ay, ya bar damar Horemheb ya yi ikirarin kursiyin na gaba.

Horemheb kuma ya mutu ba tare da 'ya'ya ba, bayan ya nada mataimakinsa, Pa-ra-mes-su, a matsayin magajinsa. Wannan vizier ya hau gadon sarauta a 1292 BC a matsayin Ramesses I, kuma shi ne Fir'auna na farko na Daular goma sha tara.

Daular Masar da Hitti, a lokacin Yaƙin Kadesh

Tsawon iko

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Daular ta goma sha tara ta kafa ta Vizier Ramesses I, wanda mai mulki na karshe na daular goma sha takwas, Fir'auna Horemheb, ya zaba a matsayin magajinsa. Takaitaccen mulkinsa ya nuna lokacin canji tsakanin mulkin Horemheb da manyan Fir'auna na wannan daular, musamman, ɗansa Seti I da jikansa Ramesses II, wanda zai kawo Masar zuwa sabon matsayi na ikon mulkin mallaka.

Seti na yi yaƙi da jerin yaƙe-yaƙe a yammacin Asiya, Libya, da Nubia a cikin shekaru goma na farko na mulkinsa. Babban tushen ilimin ayyukan soja na Seti shine wuraren yaƙi a bangon waje na arewacin Karnak Hypostyle Hall, tare da wasu siffofi na sarauta tare da rubutun da ke ambaton yaƙe-yaƙe a Kan'ana da Nubia. Babban nasarar manufofin kasashen waje na Seti I shine kama garin Kadesh na Siriya da yankin Amurru makwabta daga Daular Hittite. Misira ba ta riƙe Kadesh ba tun lokacin Akhenaton. Seti na yi nasara wajen kayar da sojojin Hittite waɗanda suka yi ƙoƙari su kare garin kuma suka gina dutsen nasara a shafin wanda masu binciken tarihi suka samo. Kadesh, duk da haka, nan da nan ya koma hannun ikon Hittite saboda Masarawa ba su ko ba za su iya kula da aikin soja na dindindin na Kadesh da Amurru waɗanda ke kusa da ƙasashen Hittite ba.

Ramesses II ya nemi dawo da yankuna a cikin Levant wanda Daular 18 ta gudanar. A shekara ta biyu, kafin ya fuskanci Hittites, Ramesses II ya magance wani hari da mutanen teku na Sherden suka yi wanda ya ci nasara kuma ya sanya su cikin sojojinsa. Yaƙin da ya yi da Hittiyawa ya ƙare a Yaƙin Kadesh, inda ya jagoranci sojojin Masar a kan na Sarkin Hitti Muwatalli II . An kama Ramesses a cikin tarihin soja na farko da aka rubuta, kodayake ya sami damar tara dakarunsa kuma ya juya yakin da aka yi da Hittites godiya ga isowar Ne'arin (watakila ma'aikata a cikin aikin Masar). Sakamakon yaƙin bai yanke shawara ba, tare da bangarorin biyu suna da'awar nasara a gaban gida, kuma a ƙarshe ya haifar da yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya tsakanin gwamnatocin biyu.Daga baya ya yi yakin neman zabe a Levant inda ya kama Edoma da Mowabi. An sami sabon masarautar Masar daga wannan lokacin a Jordan. Daga baya, Masarawa sun ci Qatna da Tunip inda aka gina mutum-mutumi na Ramses II.[12] Ta haka ne ya sake kwace Qadesh da arewacin Amurru. Duk da haka, kamar Seti I, ya gano cewa ba zai iya riƙe yankin har abada ba har zuwa nesa kuma bayan shekaru na rikici, an kammala yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya tsakanin jihohin biyu. Misira ta sami damar samun wadata da kwanciyar hankali a ƙarƙashin mulkin Ramesses, sama da rabin karni. Wadanda suka gaje shi sun ci gaba da yakin basasa, kodayake kotun da ke fama da matsala - wanda a wani lokaci ya sanya mai cin zarafi (Amenmesse) a kan kursiyin - ya sa ya zama da wahala ga Fir'auna ya ci gaba da kula da yankuna yadda ya kamata.

Ramesses II ya gina sosai a ko'ina cikin Misira da Nubia, kuma ana nuna cartouches dinsa sosai, har ma a cikin gine-ginen da bai gina ba.[13] Akwai asusun girmamawarsa da aka sassaƙa a kan dutse, siffofi, da ragowar manyan gidaje da temples - musamman Ramesseum a yammacin Thebes da temples na dutse na Abu Simbel. Ya rufe ƙasar daga Delta zuwa Nubia tare da gine-gine a hanyar da babu sarki a gabansa.[14] Ya kuma kafa sabon babban birni a Delta a lokacin mulkinsa, wanda ake kira Pi-Ramesses . A baya ya yi aiki a matsayin fadar bazara a lokacin mulkin Seti I.[15]

Ramesses II ya gina manyan abubuwan tunawa da yawa, gami da kayan tarihi na Abu Simbel, da kuma haikalin Mortuary da aka sani da Ramesseum . Ya gina a kan sikelin mai girma don tabbatar da cewa gadonsa zai tsira daga lalacewar lokaci. Ramesses ya yi amfani da fasaha a matsayin hanyar farfaganda don nasarorin da ya samu a kan baƙi, waɗanda aka nuna a kan siffofin haikalin da yawa. Ramesses II ya gina manyan siffofi na kansa fiye da kowane Fir'auna, kuma ya kwace siffofi da yawa da ke akwai ta hanyar rubuta kansa a kansu.

Ramesses II ya kuma shahara saboda yawan yaran da ya haifa ta matansa da Ƙwaraƙwarai daban-daban; kabarin da ya gina wa 'ya'yansa maza (da yawa daga cikinsu ya rayu) a Kwarin Sarakuna ya tabbatar da cewa shi ne mafi girman jana'izar a Misira.

Yaƙin basasa

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Wadanda suka gaji Ramesses II sun ci gaba da yakin basasa duk da cewa kotun da ke fama da rikice-rikice ta rikitar da al'amuran. Ɗansa Merneptah ne ya gaje shi sannan kuma ɗan Mernep Utah Seti II. Hakkin Seti II na kursiyin yana da alama ɗan'uwansa Amenmesse ne ya yi jayayya, wanda zai iya yin mulki na ɗan lokaci daga Thebes.

Bay mutuwarsa, dan Seti II Siptah, wanda watakila ya kamu da cutar shan inna a lokacin rayuwarsa, Bay, wani shugaban majalisa da kuma wani talakawa na Yammacin Asiya wanda ya yi aiki a matsayin vizier a bayan fage. Siptah ya mutu da wuri kuma Twosret ya hau gadon sarauta, wanda shine matar sarauta ta mahaifinsa kuma, mai yiwuwa, 'yar'uwar kawunsa Amenmesse.

Wani lokaci na rikici a ƙarshen gajeren mulkin Twosret ya ga naɗa Snakhte, ya kafa Daular Ashirin.

Shekaru na ƙarshe

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Fir'auna "babban" na karshe daga Sabon Masarautar an dauke shi Ramesses III, Fir'auna na Daular Ashirin wanda ya yi sarauta shekaru da yawa bayan Ramesses II.[16]

A shekara ta takwas ta mulkinsa, Mutanen Tekun sun mamaye Masar ta ƙasa da teku. Ramesses III ya kayar da su a manyan yaƙe-yaƙe biyu na ƙasa da teku (Yaƙin Djahy da Yaƙin Delta). Ya haɗa su a matsayin mutane masu biyayya kuma ana zaton ya zauna a Kudancin Kan'ana, kodayake akwai shaidar cewa sun tilasta musu shiga Kan'ana. Kasancewarsu a Kan'ana na iya ba da gudummawa ga kafa sabbin jihohi, kamar Filistiyawa, a wannan yankin bayan rushewar Daular Masar (A cikin mulkin Ramses III da kansa, har yanzu ana tabbatar da kasancewar Masar a Levant har zuwa Byblos ). Daga baya aka tilasta masa ya yi yaƙi da 'yan kabilar Libya da suka mamaye a cikin manyan kamfen guda biyu a Yammacin Delta na Masar a shekara ta shida da ta goma sha ɗaya bi da bi.[17]

Kudin wannan yaƙin ya ragu a hankali ya zubar da dukiyar Masar kuma ya ba da gudummawa ga raguwar Daular Masar a Asiya. Muhimmancin matsalolin ya nuna ta hanyar gaskiyar cewa yajin aikin ma'aikata na farko da aka sani a tarihin da aka rubuta ya faru ne a cikin shekara ta ashirin da tara na mulkin Ramesses III. A wannan lokacin, ba za a iya samar da abincin abinci ga masu gina kabarin sarauta da masu sana'a a ƙauyen Deir el Medina ba.[18] Rashin gurɓata iska ya iyakance yawan hasken rana da ke shiga cikin yanayi, yana shafar samar da aikin gona da kuma kama ci gaban bishiyoyi na duniya kusan kusan shekaru ashirin, har zuwa 1140 BC.[19] Ɗaya daga cikin dalilan da aka gabatar shine Fashewar Hekla 3 na dutsen wuta na Hekla a Iceland, amma kwanan watan wannan ya kasance mai jayayya.

Kusan ƙarshen mulkin Ramesses III, ɗaya daga cikin matansa na biyu ya yi makirci don kashe sarki a cikin neman ta na sanya ɗanta a kan kursiyin. Ma'aikatan fadar, matan, jami'an gwamnati, da jami'an sojoji sun shiga cikin makircin. An kafa kotun ta musamman ta alƙalai 12 don shari'ar wadanda ake tuhuma da aka yanke musu hukuncin kisa. Rubutun rubuce-rubuce sun nuna cewa juyin mulkin ya gaza kuma an yi nasarar gwada masu makircin. Koyaya, ba a bayyana daga takardun ko Ramses ya tsira daga yunkurin kisan kai ba. Mummy din sarki bai nuna wani raunuka da ake gani ba, kuma an bar tambayoyi game da makomarsa a buɗe don hasashe shekaru da yawa. A cikin shekara ta 2012, masu bincike sun ba da sanarwar cewa binciken CT ya nuna mummunan rauni a cikin makogwaro, yana nuna cewa masu makircin sun kashe Ramesses. Ya mutu a Thebes a cikin shekara ta 32 na mulkinsa kuma Yarima Ramesses IV ne ya gaje shi.

Yawancin hare-haren da 'yan Libya da mutanen teku suka yi, wadanda suka fi haɗari fiye da wadanda a lokacin mulkin Ramses III, sun jawo masarautar zuwa rauni. Wannan ya kara tasirin firistocin Amon wanda a ƙarshe ya haifar da iko da manyan firistoci a kan kursiyin.[20]

Raguwa zuwa Lokaci na Uku na Tsakiya

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Mutuwar Ramesses III ta biyo bayan shekaru na jayayya tsakanin magadansa. Uku daga cikin 'ya'yansa maza sun hau gadon sarauta a matsayin Ramesses IV, Rameses VI, da Rameses VIII. Masar ta kara fama da fari, ambaliyar ruwa ta Nilu, yunwa, tashin hankali na farar hula, da cin hanci da rashawa na jami'ai. Ikon Fir'auna na karshe na daular, Ramesses XI, ya raunana sosai cewa a kudu manyan firistocin Amun a Thebes sun zama sarakunan da suka dace na Upper Egypt, kuma Smendes ya mallaki Lower Egypt a arewa, har ma kafin mutuwar Rameses XI. Smendes daga ƙarshe ya kafa daular ashirin da ɗaya a Tanis .

Gidan wasan kwaikwayo

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  • Hatshepsut as a Sphinx - daughter of Thutmose I, co-regent for her two-year-old stepson Thutmose III, she soon ruled as pharaoh; Egypt prospered greatly under her rule
    Hatshepsuta matsayin Sphinx - 'yar Thutmose I, mai kula da ɗanta mai shekaru biyu Thutmosis III, nan da nan ta yi mulki a matsayin Fir'auna; Masar ta bunƙasa sosai a ƙarƙashin mulkinta
  • The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari was called Djeser-Djeseru, meaning the Holy of Holies
    TheHaikali na Hatshepsuta Deir el-Bahari an kira shiDjeser-Djeseru, ma'ana Mai Tsarki na Holies
  • Thutmosis III, a military man and member of the Thutmosid royal line is commonly called the Napoleon of Egypt because his conquests of the Levant brought Egypt's territories and influence to its greatest extent
    Thutmosis na III, wani soja kuma memba na layin sarauta na Thutmosid ana kiransa Napoleon na Masar saboda nasarorin da ya samu a Levant sun kawo yankunan Masar da tasiri sosai
  • Tiye, born a commoner, became queen through her marriage to Amenhotep III and during the New Kingdom, when women gained influence in court, Tiye soon helped run affairs of state for both her husband and son during their reigns
    Tiye, an haife ta a matsayin talakawa, ta zama sarauniya ta hanyar aurenta da Amenhotep III kuma a lokacin Sabon Masarautar, lokacin da mata suka sami tasiri a kotu, Tiye nan da nan ta taimaka wajen gudanar da al'amuran jihar ga mijinta da ɗanta a lokacin mulkin su
  • Akhenaten, born Amenhotep IV, was the son of Queen Tiye and he turned away from the dominant cult of Amun, relocated the capitol, and promoted that of the Aten as a supreme deity
    Akhenaton, an haife shi Amenhotep IV, ɗan Sarauniya Tiye ne kuma ya juya baya daga babban addinin Amun, ya sake komawa babban birnin, kuma ya inganta na Aten a matsayin allahn mafi girma
  • Nefertiti - the wife of Akhenaten, she held position as co-regent with Akhenaten and may have ruled later as pharaoh in her own right (as she is one of few candidates for the identity of Pharaoh Neferneferuaten)
    Nefertiti- matar Akhenaton, ta rike matsayi a matsayin mai mulki tare da Akhenaton kuma mai yiwuwa ta yi mulki daga baya a matsayin Fir'auna a cikin haƙƙinta (kamar yadda take ɗaya daga cikin 'yan takara kaɗan don asalin Fir'aunaNeferneferuaten)
  • Tutankhamun's mask - King Tutankhamun, son of Akhenaten, returned to the former capitol and restored the cult of Amun to its former influence; although he died young and was not considered significant in his own time, the 1922 discovery of his KV62 intact tomb by Howard Carter, made him relevant as a symbol of ancient Egypt to the modern world
    Abin rufe fuska na Tutankhamun- Sarki Tutankhamun, ɗan Akhenaten, ya koma tsohon babban birnin kuma ya dawo da bautar Amun ga tasirinsa na dā; kodayake ya mutu da ƙuruciya kuma ba a ɗauke shi da muhimmanci a lokacinsa ba, binciken da Howard Carter ya gano kabarinsa na KV62, ya sa ya dace a matsayin alama ce ta tsohuwar Misira ga duniyar zamani
  • Abu Simbel Temple of Ramesses II
    Haikali na Abu SimbelnaRamesses na II
  • Queen Ahmose-Nefertari
    SarauniyaAhmose-Nefertari
  • Egyptian Emperor Thutmose III in his youth
    Sarkin sarakuna na Masar Thutmose III a lokacin ƙuruciyarsa

Dubi kuma

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  • Tarihin Masar ta dā

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Dee, Michael W.; Rowland, Joanne M.; Higham, Thomas F. G.; Harris, Stephen A.; Brock, Fiona; Quiles, Anita; Wild, Eva M.; Marcus, Ezra S.; Shortland, Andrew J. (2010). "Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt". Science. 328 (5985): 1554–1557. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1554R. doi:10.1126/science.1189395. PMID 20558717. S2CID 206526496.
  2. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  3. ↑ Davies, Vivian (2003). "Sobeknakht of Elkab and the coming of Kush". Egyptian Archaeology. 23: 3–6.
  4. ↑ "Elkab's hidden treasure".
  5. ↑ Weinstein, James M. The Egyptian Empire in Palestine, A Reassessment, p. 7.
  6. ↑ Shaw and Nicholson (1995) p.289
  7. ↑ Steindorff p.36
  8. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  9. ↑ J.H. Breasted, Ancient Times: A History of the Early World; An Introduction to the Study of Ancient History and the Career of Early Man. Outlines of European History 1.
  10. ↑ Redford War 225
  11. ↑ Gardiner, Alan (1953). "The Coronation of King Haremhab". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 39: 13–31.
  12. ↑ "Ramses II | Biography, Accomplishments, Tomb, Mummy, Death, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 29 March 2023.
  13. ↑ Amelia Ann Blandford Edwards. "Chapter XV: Rameses the Great". Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
  14. ↑ Wolfhart Westendorf, Das alte Ägypten, 1969
  15. ↑ Kitchen (1982), p. 119.
  16. ↑ Eric H. Cline and David O'Connor, eds.
  17. ↑ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992.
  18. ↑ William F. Edgerton, "The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year", JNES 10, no. 3 (July 1951), pp. 137–145.
  19. ↑ Frank J. Yurco, "End of the Late Bronze Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause," in Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente, ed: Emily Teeter & John Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999, pp. 456-458.
  20. ↑ Mark, Joshua J. "Clergy, Priests & Priestesses in Ancient Egypt". World History Encyclopedia (in Turanci). Retrieved 2024-07-06.
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