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Tafiya tafiyan dabbobi

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Tafiya tafiyan dabbobi
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na migration (en) Fassara, animal behavior (en) Fassara da maimaita aukuwa
Facet of (en) Fassara group action (en) Fassara
Jemage masu wutsiya masu 'yanci na Mexico akan doguwar gudun hijirar su ta iska

Hijira na dabba,shine ingantacciyar motsi mai nisa na kowane kalan dabbobi, yawanci akan yanayi . Shi ne mafi yawan nau'in ƙaura a cikin ilimin halitta dabobi . Ana samunsa a cikin dukkanin manyan kungiyoyin dabbobi, ciki har da tsuntsaye, dabbobi masu shayarwa, kifi, dabbobi masu rarrafe, amphibians, kwari, da crustaceans . Dalilin ƙaura na iya zama yanayin gida, samun abinci na gida, lokacin shekara ko don saduwa da mace.

Don a lissafta shi a matsayin ƙaura na gaskiya, kuma ba kawai tarwatsawa ko ɓarna ba, motsin dabbobi ya kamata ya zama abin da ya faru na shekara-shekara ko na yanayi, ko kuma babban canjin wurin zama a matsayin wani ɓangare na rayuwarsu. Wani taron shekara-shekara zai iya haɗawa da tsuntsayen Arewacin Hemisphere da ke ƙaura zuwa kudu don hunturu, ko ƙaura na daji a kowace shekara don kiwo na yanayi. Babban canjin wurin zama zai iya haɗawa da matasan kifin Atlantika ko fitilar teku suna barin kogin haihuwarsu lokacin da suka kai ɗan inci kaɗan a girman. Wasu nau'ikan ƙaura na al'ada na ɗan adam sun dace da wannan tsarin.

Ana iya yin nazarin ƙaura ta amfani da alamun ganowa na gargajiya kamar zoben tsuntsu, ko kuma sa ido kai tsaye tare da na'urorin sa ido na lantarki. Kafin a fahimci ƙaura na dabba, an tsara bayanin al'adun gargajiya don bayyanar da bacewar wasu nau'ikan, irin su barnacle geese ya girma daga ɓangarorin Goose .

Dubawa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ra'ayoyi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Wildebeest akan Serengeti 'babban ƙaura'

Hijira dabobi kuma yana da dalilai iri-iri. [1] [2] Don haka, babu wani ma'anar ƙaura mai sauƙi da aka yarda da ita. [3] Ɗaya daga cikin ma'anar da a

Migratory behavior is persistent and straightened-out movement effected by the animal's own locomotory exertions or by its active embarkation on a vehicle. It depends on some temporary inhibition of station-keeping responses, but promotes their eventual disinhibition and recurrence.[4]

Hijira ya ƙunshi ra'ayoyi huɗu masu alaƙa: motsi madaidaiciya; ƙaura na mutum a kan mafi girma (a cikin sararin samaniya da lokaci) fiye da ayyukan yau da kullum; motsi zuwa-da-daga na yanayi na yawan jama'a tsakanin yankuna biyu; da motsi da ke haifar da sake rarraba daidaikun mutane a cikin yawan jama'a. [3] Hijira na iya zama ko dai wajibi, ma'ana dole ne daidaikun mutane suyi ƙaura, ko kuma masu ilimi, ma'ana daidaikun mutane na iya "zaɓa" don yin ƙaura ko a'a. A cikin nau'in ƙaura ko ma a cikin jama'a ɗaya, yawanci ba duka mutane ke yin ƙaura ba. Cikakkiyar ƙaura ita ce lokacin da dukan mutane suka yi hijira, ƙaura ta ɓangarori ita ce lokacin da wasu mutane suka yi hijira yayin da wasu ba sa yin hijira, kuma bambancin ƙaura shine lokacin da bambanci tsakanin mutanen ƙaura da waɗanda ba ƙaura ba ya dogara ne akan halaye da ake iya ganewa kamar shekaru ko jima'i. [3] Ƙauran da ba na ka'ida ba (wanda ba na yau da kullun ba) kamar ɓarna na iya faruwa a ƙarƙashin matsin yunwa, yawan jama'a na wani yanki, ko wani tasiri mai duhu.

Na zamani

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Hijira na zamani shine ƙane ƙaura daga wannan wurin zuwa wancan cikin shekara. Samuwar albarkatu yana canzawa dangane da sauyin yanayi, wanda ke tasiri ga tsarin ƙaura. Wasu nau'ikan irin su salmon Pacific suna ƙaura don haifuwa; kowace shekara, suna iyo daga sama don yin aure sannan su koma cikin teku. [5] Zazzabi shine abin tuƙi na ƙaura wanda ya dogara da lokacin shekara. Yawancin nau'ikan, musamman tsuntsaye, suna ƙaura zuwa wurare masu zafi a lokacin hunturu don guje wa rashin kyawun yanayi. [6]

Circadian

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hijira na Circadian shine inda tsuntsaye ke amfani da rhythm circadian (CR) don daidaita ƙaura a cikin fall da bazara. A cikin ƙauran circadian, ana amfani da agogon agogon circadian (kullum) da kuma na shekara-shekara (shekara-shekara) don tantance yanayin yanayin tsuntsaye a cikin lokaci da sararin samaniya yayin da suke ƙaura daga wuri ɗaya zuwa gaba. Wannan nau'in ƙaura yana da fa'ida a cikin tsuntsaye waɗanda, a lokacin hunturu, suna kasancewa kusa da equator, kuma suna ba da damar lura da ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya da sarari na kwakwalwar tsuntsu don tunawa da mafi kyawun wurin ƙaura. Su kuma wadannan tsuntsayen suna da hanyoyin da za a bi domin samar musu da nisa zuwa inda za su nufa. [7]

Tidal

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙaurawar ƙaura shine amfani da igiyoyin ruwa ta kwayoyin halitta don motsawa lokaci-lokaci daga wannan wurin zuwa wani. Ana amfani da irin wannan ƙaura sau da yawa don nemo abinci ko abokan aure. Tides na iya ɗaukar kwayoyin halitta a kwance da kuma a tsaye na ɗan nanometer kaɗan zuwa ko da dubban kilomita. [8] Mafi yawan nau'i na ƙaura daga magudanar ruwa shine zuwa kuma daga shiyyar intertidal yayin hawan igiyar ruwa ta yau da kullun. [8] Wadannan yankuna galibi suna da yawan jinsuna daban-daban kuma suna da wadataccen abinci mai gina jiki. Kwayoyin halitta kamar kaguwa, nematodes, da ƙananan kifaye suna motsawa da fita daga cikin waɗannan wuraren yayin da igiyoyin ruwa ke tashi da faɗuwa, yawanci kusan kowane awa goma sha biyu. Moza su fito don cin abinci saboda suna iya rayuwa a cikin ruwa mai zurfi kuma suna da damar da za a iya cinye su. A lokacin hawan igiyar ruwa, ana iya samun jinsuna mafi girma saboda zurfin ruwa da haɓakar abinci mai gina jiki daga motsin tudun ruwa. Sau da yawa ana samun sauƙin ƙaura ta hanyar igiyoyin ruwa . [9] [10] [11]

Diel

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yayin da yawancin motsin ƙaura ke faruwa akan zagayowar shekara, wasu motsin yau da kullun kuma ana kwatanta su da ƙaura. Dabbobin ruwa da yawa suna yin ƙaura a tsaye, suna tafiya 'yan mita ɗari sama da ƙasa ginshiƙin ruwa, [12] yayin da wasu jellyfish ke yin ƙaura a kwance na yau da kullun na 'yan mitoci kaɗan. [13]

A cikin takamaiman ƙungiyoyi

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Dabbobi daban-daban suna ƙaura ta hanyoyi daban-daban.

A cikin tsuntsaye

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Garkunan tsuntsaye suna taruwa kafin ƙaura zuwa kudu

  Kusan 1,800 daga cikin nau'in tsuntsaye 10,000 na duniya suna yin ƙaura mai nisa kowace shekara saboda yanayin yanayi. [14] Yawancin waɗannan ƙaura suna arewa-kudu, tare da nau'ikan ciyarwa da hayayyafa a cikin manyan latitudes na arewa a lokacin rani kuma suna ƙaura wasu ɗaruruwan kilomita kudu don lokacin hunturu. Wasu nau'ikan suna fadada wannan dabarun don yin ƙaura a kowace shekara tsakanin Arewaci da Kudancin Ƙasar. Arctic tern yana da mafi tsayin tafiya ƙaura na kowane tsuntsu: yana tashi daga wuraren kiwo na Arctic zuwa Antarctic kuma yana dawowa kowace shekara, tazarar akalla 19,000 kilometres (12,000 mi), yana ba da lokacin bazara sau biyu a kowace shekara.

Ana sarrafa ƙauran tsuntsu da farko ta tsawon yini, ana nuna alamar canjin hormonal a jikin tsuntsu. [15] A kan ƙaura, tsuntsaye suna kewayawa ta amfani da hankali da yawa. Tsuntsaye da yawa suna amfani da kamfas ɗin rana, suna buƙatar su rama canjin yanayin rana tare da lokacin rana. [16] Kewayawa ya ƙunshi ikon gano filayen maganadisu . [17]

A cikin kifi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Yawancin nau'in salmon suna ƙaura zuwa koguna don hayayyafa

Yawancin nau'in kifi suna da iyaka a cikin motsinsu, suna zama a wuri ɗaya kuma suna yin gajeriyar ƙaura zuwa overwinter, don hayayyafa, ko ciyarwa. Wasu nau'ikan nau'ikan ɗari suna ƙaura mai nisa, a wasu lokuta na dubban kilomita. Kimanin nau'ikan kifaye 120, gami da nau'ikan kifin kifi da yawa, suna ƙaura tsakanin ruwan gishiri da ruwa mai daɗi (su 'diadromous' ne). [18] [19]

Kifayen abinci irin su herring da capelin suna yin ƙaura a wurare masu mahimmanci na Arewacin Tekun Atlantika . Alal misali, capelin, ya tsiro a kusa da kudanci da yammacin bakin tekun Iceland; tsutsansu na kewayawa da agogo baya kusa da Iceland, yayin da kifayen ke ninkaya zuwa arewa zuwa tsibirin Jan Mayen don ciyarwa da komawa Iceland daidai da gabar gabashin Greenland. [20]

A cikin ' sardine run ', biliyoyin pilchard Sardinops sagax na Kudancin Afirka sun haihu a cikin ruwan sanyi na bankin Agulhas kuma suka koma arewa tare da gabar gabashin Afirka ta Kudu tsakanin Mayu da Yuli. [21]

A cikin kwari

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Tarin ƙaura na Pantala flavescens dragonflies, da aka sani da globe skimmers, a Coorg, Indiya

Wasu ƙwari masu fuka-fuki irin su fari da wasu malam buɗe ido da dodanni da ke da ƙaƙƙarfan jirgin suna ƙaura mai nisa. Daga cikin dragonflies, nau'in Libellula da Sympetrum an san su da ƙaura mai yawa, yayin da Pantala flavescens, wanda aka sani da globe skimmer ko yawo glider dragonfly, ya sa mafi tsayin teku mafi tsayi na kowane kwari: tsakanin Indiya da Afirka. [22] Na musamman, gungun farar hamada, Schistocerca gregaria, sun tashi zuwa yamma ta haye Tekun Atlantika na tsawon 4,500 kilometres (2,800 mi) a lokacin Oktoba 1988, ta yin amfani da igiyoyin iska a cikin Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone . [23]

A cikin wasu malam buɗe ido masu ƙaura, irin su malam buɗe ido da kuma matar fenti, babu wani mutum da ya kammala dukan ƙaura. Maimakon haka, malam buɗe ido suna haɗuwa kuma suna haifuwa a kan tafiya, kuma tsararraki masu zuwa suna ci gaba da ƙaura. [24]

A cikin dabbobi masu shayarwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wasu dabbobi masu shayarwa suna yin ƙaura na musamman; Barewa na da ɗaya daga cikin ƙaura mafi tsayi a duniya, wanda ya kai 4,868 kilometres (3,025 mi) kowace shekara a Arewacin Amurka. Koyaya, a cikin shekara guda, kyarkeci masu launin toka suna motsawa mafi yawa. Kerkeci ɗaya mai launin toka ya rufe jimlar tazarar 7,247 kilometres (4,503 mi) . [25]

Makiyaya masu tsayin daka a Lesotho suna yin juzu'i da tumakinsu.

Hijira mai yawa tana faruwa a cikin dabbobi masu shayarwa irin su Serengeti 'babban ƙaura', yanayin motsi na shekara-shekara tare da wasu nau'ikan daji miliyan 1.7 da dubun dubatar sauran manyan dabbobin daji, gami da gazelles da zebra . [26] [27] Fiye da nau'ikan nau'ikan nau'ikan nau'ikan guda 20 suna shiga, ko kuma ana amfani da su don shiga, cikin ƙaura. [28] Daga cikin waɗannan ƙaura, waɗanda na springbok, black wildebeest, blesbok, scimitar-horned oryx, da kulan sun daina. [29] Hijira mai nisa na faruwa a wasu jemagu – musamman yawan ƙaura na jemage mai cin gashin kai na Mexico tsakanin Oregon da kudancin Mexico. [30] Hijira yana da mahimmanci a cikin cetaceans, ciki har da whales, dolphins da porpoises; wasu nau'ikan suna tafiya mai nisa tsakanin ciyarwarsu da wuraren kiwonsu. [31]

Mutane dabbobi masu shayarwa ne, amma ƙauran ɗan adam, kamar yadda aka saba bayyanawa, shine lokacin da daidaikun mutane sukan canza har abada inda suke zama, wanda bai dace da tsarin da aka bayyana a nan ba. Banda haka shi ne wasu nau'ikan ƙaura na gargajiya irin su ƙaura, inda makiyaya da dabbobinsu ke tafiya a kan lokaci tsakanin tsaunuka da kwaruruka, da kuma motsin makiyaya na kan lokaci . [32] [33]

A cikin sauran dabbobi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Daga cikin dabbobi masu rarrafe, manya kunkuru na teku suna yin hijira zuwa nesa mai nisa don yin hayayyafa, kamar yadda wasu ‘yan amfibiya ke yi. Kunkurun teku masu kyankyashe, suma, suna fitowa daga cikin gidauniyar karkashin kasa, suna rarrafe zuwa ruwa, su yi iyo a cikin teku don isa budadden teku. Kunkuru koren teku na matasa suna amfani da filin maganadisu na duniya don kewayawa. [34]

Kirsimati ja kaguwar kaguwar shekara-shekara

Wasu crustaceans yin ƙaura, irin su kaguwar jajayen tsibirin Kirsimeti na duniya, wanda miliyoyin ke motsawa kowace shekara. Kamar sauran kaguwa, suna numfashi ta hanyar amfani da gills, wanda dole ne ya kasance jika, don haka suna guje wa hasken rana kai tsaye, suna tono burrows don fakewa daga rana. Suna yin aure a kan ƙasa kusa da burrows. Matan suna cusa ƙwayayen su a cikin buhunan ciki na tsawon makonni biyu. Daga nan sai su koma teku su saki ƙwayayen su a lokacin da ruwa ya tashi a cikin kwata na ƙarshe na wata. Larvae ɗin sun shafe wasu makonni a cikin teku sannan su koma ƙasa. [35] [36]

Bibiyar ƙaura

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Malami mai ƙaura, sarki, wanda aka yiwa alama don ganewa

Masana kimiyya suna tattara abubuwan lura da ƙaurar dabbobi ta hanyar bin diddigin motsin su. A al'adance an bibiyi dabbobi tare da alamun tantancewa kamar zoben tsuntsaye don murmurewa daga baya. Koyaya, ba a sami wani bayani game da ainihin hanyar da aka bi tsakanin sakin da murmurewa ba, kuma kaɗan ne kawai na mutanen da aka yiwa alama aka gano. Mafi dacewa, don haka, sune na'urorin lantarki irin su ƙwanƙolin bin diddigin rediyo waɗanda rediyo za su iya bi, ko na hannu, a cikin abin hawa ko jirgin sama, ko ta tauraron dan adam. [37] Bibiyar dabbar GPS tana ba da damar sahihan wurare don watsa shirye-shiryen lokaci-lokaci, amma na'urorin babu makawa sun fi waɗanda ba su da GPS nauyi da tsada. Madadin ita ce tag ɗin Argos Doppler, wanda kuma ake kira 'Platform Transmitter Terminal' (PTT), wanda ke aikawa akai-akai zuwa tauraron dan adam Argos da ke kewaya polar; ta yin amfani da motsi na Doppler, ana iya ƙididdige wurin dabbar, in an kwatanta da GPS, amma a ƙananan farashi da nauyi. [37] Fasahar da ta dace da ƙananan tsuntsaye waɗanda ba za su iya ɗaukar na'urori masu nauyi ba shine geolocator wanda ke yin rikodin matakin haske yayin da tsuntsu ke tashi, don bincike kan sake kamawa. [38] Akwai iyaka don ƙarin haɓaka tsarin da zai iya bin diddigin dabbobi a duniya. [39]

Ana iya shigar da alamun sa ido na rediyo ga kwari, gami da dodanni da kudan zuma . [40]

manazarta

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  1. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  2. ↑ Silva, S.; Servia, M. J.; Vieira-Lanero, R.; Cobo, F. (2012). "Downstream migration and hematophagous feeding of newly metamorphosed sea lampreys (Petromyzon marinus Linnaeus, 1758)". Hydrobiologia. 700 (1): 277–286. doi:10.1007/s10750-012-1237-3. ISSN 0018-8158. S2CID 16752713.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Dingle, Hugh; Drake, V. Alistair (2007). "What is migration?". BioScience. 57 (2): 113–121. doi:10.1641/B570206. S2CID 196608896. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "DingleDrake" defined multiple times with different content
  4. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Kennedy
  5. ↑ "About Pacific Salmon". Pacific Salmon Commission. 12 February 2015. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
  6. ↑ "The Basics of Bird Migration: How, Why, and Where". All About Birds. 1 January 2007. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
  7. ↑ Gwinner, E (1996). "Circadian and circannual programmes in avian migration". Journal of Experimental Biology. 199 (Pt 1): 39–48. doi:10.1242/jeb.199.1.39. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 9317295.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Gibson, R. (2003). "Go with the flow: tidal migration in marine animals". Hydrobiologia. 503 (1–3): 153–161. doi:10.1023/B:HYDR.0000008488.33614.62. S2CID 11320839.
  9. ↑ Hufnagl, M.; Temming, A.; Pohlmann, T. (2014). "The missing link: tidal-influenced activity a likely candidate to close the migration triangle in brown shrimp Crangon crangon (Crustacea, Decapoda)". Fisheries Oceanography. 23 (3): 242–257. Bibcode:2014FisOc..23..242H. doi:10.1111/fog.12059.
  10. ↑ Brenner, M.; Krumme, U. (2007). "Tidal migration and patterns in feeding of the four-eyed fish Anableps anableps L. in a north Brazilian mangrove" (PDF). Journal of Fish Biology. 70 (2): 406–427. Bibcode:2007JFBio..70..406B. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01313.x.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Gibson, R. N. (2003). "Go with the Flow: Tidal Migration in Marine Animals". Hydrobiologia. 503 (1–3): 153–161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.463.6977. doi:10.1023/B:HYDR.0000008488.33614.62. S2CID 11320839.
  12. ↑ McLaren, I. A. (1974). "Demographic strategy of vertical migration by a marine copepod". The American Naturalist. 108 (959): 91–102. doi:10.1086/282887. JSTOR 2459738. S2CID 83760473.
  13. ↑ Hamner, W. M.; Hauri, I. R. (1981). "Long-distance horizontal migrations of zooplankton (Scyphomedusae: Mastigias)". Limnology and Oceanography. 26 (3): 414–423. Bibcode:1981LimOc..26..414I. doi:10.4319/lo.1981.26.3.0414.
  14. ↑ Sekercioglu, C. H. (2007). "Conservation ecology: area trumps mobility in fragment bird extinctions". Current Biology. 17 (8): 283–286. Bibcode:2007CBio...17.R283S. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.02.019. PMID 17437705. S2CID 744140.
  15. ↑ Fusani, L.; Cardinale, L.; Carere, C.; Goymann, W. (2009). "Stopover decision during migration: physiological conditions predict nocturnal restlessness in wild passerines". Biology Letters. 5 (3): 302–305. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0755. PMC 2679912. PMID 19324648.
  16. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  17. ↑ Heyers, D.; Manns, M. (2007). Iwaniuk, Andrew (ed.). Luksch, H; Güntürkün, O; Mouritsen, H. "A Visual Pathway Links Brain Structures Active during Magnetic Compass Orientation in Migratory Birds". PLOS ONE. 2 (9): e937. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..937H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000937. PMC 1976598. PMID 17895978.
  18. ↑ Harden Jones, F. R. Fish Migration: strategy and tactics. pp139–166 in Aidley, 1981.
  19. ↑ Myers, George S. (1949). "Usage of Anadromous, Catadromous and allied terms for migratory fishes". Copeia. 1949 (2): 89–97. doi:10.2307/1438482. JSTOR 1438482.
  20. ↑ Barbaro, A.; Einarsson, B.; Birnir, B.; Sigurðsson, S.; Valdimarsson, S.; Pálsson, Ó.K.; Sveinbjörnsson, S.; Sigurðsson, P. (2009). "Modelling and simulations of the migration of pelagic fish" (PDF). Journal of Marine Science. 66 (5): 826–838. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsp067.
  21. ↑ Fréon, P.; Coetzee, J. C.; Van Der Lingen, C. D.; Connell, A. D.; o'Donoghue, S. H.; Roberts, M. J.; Demarcq, H.; Attwood, C.G.; Lamberth, S. J. (2010). "A review and tests of hypotheses about causes of the KwaZulu-Natal sardine run". African Journal of Marine Science. 32 (2): 449–479. Bibcode:2010AfJMS..32..449F. doi:10.2989/1814232X.2010.519451. S2CID 84513261. Archived from the original on 20 April 2012.
  22. ↑ Williams, C. B. (1957). "Insect Migration". Annual Review of Entomology. 2 (1): 163–180. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.02.010157.001115.
  23. ↑ Tipping, Christopher (8 May 1995). "Chapter 11: The Longest Migration". Book of Insect Records. Department of Entomology & Nematology University of Florida. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
  24. ↑ Stefanescu, Constantí; Páramo, Ferran; Åkesson, Susanne; Alarcón, Marta; Ávila, Anna; Brereton, Tom; Carnicer, Jofre; Cassar, Louis F.; Fox, Richard; Heliölä, Janne; Hill, Jane K.; Hirneisen, Norbert; Kjellén, Nils; Kühn, Elisabeth; Kuussaari, Mikko (2013). "Multi-generational long-distance migration of insects: studying the painted lady butterfly in the Western Palaearctic" (PDF). Ecography. 36 (4): 474–486. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.07738.x. ISSN 0906-7590.
  25. ↑ Joly, Kyle; Gurarie, Eliezer; Sorum, Mathew S.; Kaczensky, Petra; Cameron, Matthew D.; Jakes, Andrew F.; Borg, Bridget L.; Nandintsetseg, Dejid; Hopcraft, J. Grant C.; Buuveibaatar, Bayarbaatar; Jones, Paul F. (December 2019). "Longest terrestrial migrations and movements around the world". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 15333. Bibcode:2019NatSR...915333J. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51884-5. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6814704. PMID 31654045.
  26. ↑ "How to Get There, Ngorongoro Crater". Ngorongoro Crater Tanzania. 2013. Archived from the original on 22 March 2014. Retrieved 19 June 2014.
  27. ↑ "Ngorongoro Conservation Area". United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 12 June 2014. Retrieved 19 June 2014.
  28. ↑ Harris, Grant; et al. (Apr 2009). "Global decline in aggregated migrations of large terrestrial mammals" (PDF). Endangered Species Research. 7: 55–76. doi:10.3354/esr00173.
  29. ↑ van Oosterzee, Penny (9 December 2017). "Wildebeest no more: The death of Africa's great migrations". New Scientist. Cites Harris et al. See figure.
  30. ↑ "Bats & Migration". Organization for Bat Conservation. Archived from the original on 14 June 2014. Retrieved 19 June 2014.
  31. ↑ Lockyer, C. H. and Brown, S. G. The Migration of Whales. pp. 105–137 in Aidley 1981.
  32. ↑ Baldridge, Elizabeth (27 August 2020). "Migration vs. Immigration: Understanding the Nuances". The Word Point. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
  33. ↑ Quinlan, T.; Morris, C. D. (1994). "Implications of changes to the transhumance system for conservation of the mountain catchments in eastern Lesotho". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 11 (3): 76–81. Bibcode:1994AJRFS..11...76Q. doi:10.1080/10220119.1994.9647851. ISSN 1022-0119.
  34. ↑ Lohmann, Kenneth J.; Lohmann, Catherine M. F.; Ehrhart, Llewellyn M.; Bagley, Dean A.; Swing, Timothy (2004). "Geomagnetic map used in sea-turtle navigation". Nature. 428 (6986): 909–910. doi:10.1038/428909a. PMID 15118716. S2CID 4329507.
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  36. ↑ Adamczewska, Agnieszka M.; Morris, Stephen (June 2001). "Ecology and behaviour of Gecarcoidea natalis, the Christmas Island red crab, during the annual breeding migration". The Biological Bulletin. 200 (3): 305–320. doi:10.2307/1543512. JSTOR 1543512. PMID 11441973. S2CID 28150487.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "What is animal tracking?". Movebank: For Animal Tracking Data. Archived from the original on 21 April 2014.
  38. ↑ Stutchbury, Bridget J. M.; Tarof, Scott A.; Done, Tyler; Gow, Elizabeth; Kramer, Patrick M.; Tautin, John; Fox, James W.; Afanasyev, Vsevolod (2009-02-13). "Tracking Long-Distance Songbird Migration by Using Geolocators". Science. 323 (5916): 896. Bibcode:2009Sci...323..896S. doi:10.1126/science.1166664. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 19213909. S2CID 34444695.
  39. ↑ Wikelski, Martin; Kays, Roland W.; Kasdin, N. Jeremy; Thorup, Kasper; Smith, James A.; Swenson, George W. (15 January 2007). "Going wild: what a global small-animal tracking system could do for experimental biologists". Journal of Experimental Biology. The Company of Biologists. 210 (2): 181–186. doi:10.1242/jeb.02629. ISSN 1477-9145. PMID 17210955. S2CID 8073226.
  40. ↑ "Tracking Migration of Dragonflies, Sparrows, and Bees". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 30 May 2014.
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