Jump to content

Ambaliya

Gyara hanyoyin mahaɗar
Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
ambaliya
form of event (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na natural disaster (en) Fassara da high tide (en) Fassara
Yana haddasa Mutuwa, property damage (en) Fassara, dam failure (en) Fassara da flood damage (en) Fassara
Handled, mitigated, or managed by (en) Fassara Gudanar da ambaliyar ruwa da waterproofing (en) Fassara
Ambaliyar ruwa a cikin birni a kan wani titi a Morpeth, Northumberland, Ingila, 2008

Ambaliyar ruwa (wato flood a Turance) ita ce ambaliya ta ruwa (ko kuma da kuryar gaske sauran wasu ruwa-ruwa daban) wadda ke nutsar da ƙasa da yawanci take a bushe.[1] Ta fuskar ma'anar "gudun ruwa", ana iya amfani da kalmar kuma ga kwararar igiyar ruwa na teku (tide). Ambaliyar ruwa babban abin damuwa ne a fannin noma, aikin injiniya na gine-gine (civil engineering) da kuma lafiyar jama'a. Sauye-sauyen da ɗan adam ke yi wa muhalli galibi suna ƙara tsanani da yawaitar ambaliyar ruwa. Misalan sauye-sauyen ɗan adam sune sauye-sauyen amfani da ƙasa kamar sare bishiyoyi (deforestation) da kuma kawar da dausayi (wetlands), sauye-sauye a hanyar ruwa ko dabarun shawo kan ambaliyar ruwa kamar gina katangar kariya (levees). Matsalolin muhalli na duniya su ma suna tasiri ga abubuwan da ke haifar da ambaliyar ruwa, musamman sauyin yanayi (climate change) wanda ke haifar da tsananin zagayowar ruwa (water cycle) da kuma hauhawar matakin teku.[2]:1517 Alal misali, sauyin yanayi yana sanya abubuwan da suka shafi matsanancin yanayi yawaita da kuma ƙara ƙarfi.[3] Wannan yana haifar da ƙarin tsananin ambaliyar ruwa da kuma ƙara haɗarin ambaliya.[4][5]

Nau'o'in ambaliyar ruwa na halitta sun haɗa da ambaliyar kogi, ambaliyar ruwan ƙasa, ambaliyar gaɓar teku, da kuma ambaliyar cikin birni wadda wani lokaci ake kira da ambaliyar bazata (flash flooding). Ambaliyar igiyar ruwa na iya haɗawa da abubuwan da suka shafi tsarin ambaliyar kogi da na gaɓar teku a yankunan da koguna ke haɗuwa da teku. Akwai kuma ambaliyar ƙasa da gangan wadda da a ce ba haka ba da ta kasance a bushe. Ana iya yin wannan don dalilai na aikin noma, aikin soja, ko kuma kula da tafiyar koguna. Alal misali, ambaliyar aikin noma na iya faruwa wajen shirya gonakin shinkafa don shuka shinkafar da ke buƙatar ruwa mai yawa a ƙasashe da dama.

Ambaliyar ruwa na iya faruwa a matsayin ambaliyar ruwa daga guraren taruwar ruwa, kamar kogi, tafki, kogi mai gishiri ko teku gabaɗaya. A waɗannan lokuta, ruwan yana wuce gona da iri ko kuma ya farfasa katangar kariya, wanda hakan ke sa wasu daga cikin ruwan su fita daga iyakokinsu na yau da kullum.[6] Ambaliyar ruwa na iya faruwa kuma saboda taruwar ruwan sama a kan ƙasar da ta riga ta ƙoshi da ruwa. Ana kiran wannan da ambaliyar yanki (areal flood). Girman tafki ko wani gurin ruwa yana sauyawa ta dabi'ance tare da sauye-sauyen yanayi na ruwan sama da narkewar ƙanƙara. Koyon haka, ba a ɗaukar waɗancan sauye-sauyen girma a matsayin ambaliyar ruwa sai dai idan sun mamaye kadarori ko kuma sun nutsar da dabbobin gida.

Ambaliyar ruwa na iya faruwa kuma a cikin koguna lokacin da saurin kwararar ruwa ya wuce ƙarfin hanyar kogin, musamman a wuraren da kogin ya lanƙwasa ko karkata a hanyar ruwan. Ambaliyar ruwa galibi tana haifar da lalacewa ga gidaje da kamfanoni idan waɗannan gine-gine suna cikin kwarurukan ambaliya na halitta na koguna. Mutane za su iya guje wa lalacewar ambaliyar kogi ta hanyar ƙaura daga kusa da koguna. Sai dai kuma, mutane a ƙasashe da dama a al'adance suna rayuwa da aiki a kusa da koguna saboda ƙasar yawanci tana da faɗi kuma tana da gajiyar taki (tana da ni'ima). Haka kuma, kogunan suna ba da damar tafiye-tafiye cikin sauƙi da kuma hanyar gudanar da kasuwanci da masana'antu.

Ambaliyar ruwa na iya lalata kadarori sannan kuma ta haifar da wasu tasiri na daban. Waɗannan sun haɗa da ƙaruwar yaɗuwar cututtukan da ke yaɗuwa ta ruwa a cikin ƙanƙanin lokaci da kuma cututtukan da ƙwari ke ɗauke da su, misali waɗancan cututtukan da sauro ke yaɗawa. Ambaliyar ruwa na iya haifar da raba mazauna gajensu da muhallansu na dogon lokaci.[7] Ambaliyar ruwa wani fanni ne na nazari na ilimin ruwa (hydrology) da aikin injiniya na ruwa (hydraulic engineering).

Babban ɓangare na al'ummar duniya suna rayuwa ne kusa da manyan gaɓar teku,[8] yayin da manyan birane da yankunan noma da dama ke kusa da kwarurukan ambaliya.[9] Akwai gagarumin haɗari na ƙaruwar ambaliyar gaɓar teku da na koguna saboda canjin yanayi.[10]

Nau'o'in Ambaliyar Ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Hoton ambaliyar ruwa a New Orleans bayan afkuwar Guguwar Katrina
Ambaliyar wani rafi sakamakon tsananin ruwan sama na damina da kuma hauhawar igiyar ruwan teku a Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
Ambaliyar ruwa a Jeddah, wadda ta mamaye Titin Sarki Abdullah a Saudi Arabia
Ambaliyar ruwa ta kan ƙasa kusa da Georgetown, Minnesota, a kwaron Red River na Arewa

Ambaliyar yanki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
A lokacin bazara, ambaliyar ruwa tana da matukar yawa a Ostrobothnia, wani yanki mai faɗi a Finland. Wani gida da ambaliyar ruwa ta kewaye shi a Ilmajoki, Kudancin Ostrobothnia.

Ambaliyar ruwa na iya faruwa a filaye masu faɗi ko ƙasashe aukuwa lokacin da ake samun ruwan sama ko narkewar ƙanƙara cikin sauri fiye da yadda ƙasa za ta iya tsotsewa ko kuma ruwan ya gudana. Rarar ruwan tana taruwa a wurin, wani lokacin har zuwa zurfin da ke da haɗari. Saman ƙasa na iya ƙoshi da ruwa, wanda hakan ke dakatar da tsotsewar ruwan yadda ya kamata, musamman a wuraren da matakin ruwan ƙasa ke kusa da sama kamar kwarurukan ambaliya, ko kuma sakamakon tsananin ruwan sama daga guguwa guda ko jerin guguwanni. Tsotsewar ruwa kuma tana yin jinkiri ko ma rashin gudanarwa ta cikin daskararriyar ƙasa, dutse, kankare, siminti, ko kwanon rufi. Ambaliyar yanki tana farawa ne a filaye masu faɗi kamar kwarurukan ambaliya da kuma cikin rami-rami na cikin gida waɗanda ba su haɗu da hanyar rafi ba, domin saurin kwararar ruwa ta kan ƙasa ya danganta ne da gangaren saman ƙasar. Guraren da ke da korarru na cikin gida (endorheic basins) na iya fuskantar ambaliyar yanki a lokutan da aka sami ruwan sama ya fi fitar ruwa zuwa sararin sama (evaporation).[11]

Ambaliyar kogi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

File:January 27 2019 Baron River Flooding, Cairns.jpg|thumb|left|Ambaliyar Kogin Baron a ranar 27 ga Janairu, Cairns Ambaliyar ruwa tana faruwa a kowane nau'in hanyoyin koguna da rafuka, tun daga ƙananan rafukan lokaci-lokaci a yankuna masu rafi zuwa hanyoyin ruwa da yawanci suke a bushe a yankuna masu ƙarancin ruwa, har zuwa manyan koguna na duniya kamar Kogin Amazon. Lokacin da kwararar ruwa ta kan ƙasa ta faru a gonakin da aka yi noma, tana iya haifar da ambaliyar laka inda ruwan ke kwashe lallon ƙasa tare da ɗaukar su a matsayin abubuwa masu iyo ko abubuwan da ke gungurawa a ƙasan ruwa. Katshiyar hanyoyin ruwa sakamakon rushewar ƙasa, ƙanƙara, barago, ko madatsun ruwa na dabbobin "beaver" na iya haifar ko tsananta ambaliyar ruwa ta cikin gida.

Ambaliyar ruwa mai tasowa a hankali galibi tana faruwa ne a manyan koguna masu faɗin yankunan da ke tara ruwa (catchment areas). Ƙaruwar kwararar ruwan na iya zama sanadiyyar dorewar ruwan sama, saurin narkewar ƙanƙara, damina, ko guguwa mai zafi. Sai dai kuma, manyan koguna na iya samun gaggawar ambaliyar ruwa a yankuna masu busassun yanayi, tunda suna iya samun manyan kwaruruka amma ƙananan hanyoyin kogi, kuma ruwan sama na iya yin tsanani sosai a ƙananan sassan waɗancan kwarurukan.

A yankuna masu tsananin faɗi, kamar kwaron Red River na Arewa a Minnesota, North Dakota, da Manitoba, wani nau'in haɗaɗɗen ambaliyar kogi da na yanki na iya faruwa, wanda aka fi sani a can da "ambaliyar ta kan ƙasa" (overland flooding). Wannan ya bambanta da "kwararar ta kan ƙasa" (overland flow) wanda aka bayyana shi a matsayin "gudanar ruwa na saman ƙasa". Kwaron Red River tsohon gurin tafkin ƙanƙara ne da aka halitta ta hanyar Tafkin Agassiz, kuma a tsawon mil 550, hanyar kogin tana sauka da ƙafafu 236 kacal, wanda ke nufin matsakaicin gangare na kusan inci 5 a kowace mil (ko santimita 8.2 a kowace kilomita).[12] A cikin wannan babban yanki, narkewar ƙanƙara na lokacin bazara yana faruwa a matakai daban-daban a wurare daban-daban, kuma idan ƙanƙarar lokacin hunturu ta yi nauyi, saurin narkewar ƙanƙara na iya tura ruwa waje daga iyakokin wani kogi na reshe ta yadda zai rarraba ta kan ƙasa zuwa wani guri na can ƙasa a cikin kogin ko kuma gaba ɗaya zuwa wata hanyar rafin daban. Ambaliyar ta kan ƙasa na iya zama mai barna sosai domin ba a iya hasashenta, tana iya faruwa farat ɗaya da matsanancin sauri, kuma a irin wannan ƙasa mai faɗi tana iya gudu na tsawon miloli da dama. Waɗannan halaye ne suka bambanta ta da sauƙaƙan "kwararar ta kan ƙasa".

Gaggawar ambaliyar ruwa, gami da ambaliyar bazata (flash floods), galibi suna faruwa ne a ƙananan koguna, koguna masu kwaruruka masu tsinge, koguna masu gudu mafi yawancin tsawonsu a kan ƙasa marar ratsawa, ko hanyoyin ruwa da yawanci suke a bushe. Sanadin hakan na iya zama tsananin ruwan sama na guguwa (convective precipitation) ko kuma saki na ba-zata daga matattarar ruwa ta can sama da aka halitta a bayan madatsar ruwa, rushewar ƙasa, ko ƙanƙara. A wani misali, ambaliyar bazata ta kashe mutane takwas da ke nishaɗi a cikin ruwa a ranar Lahadi da yamma a wani shahararren ramin ambaliya a cikin wani kunkuntar kwaro. Ba tare da an ga alamar ruwan sama ba, saurin kwararar ruwan ya ƙaru daga kusan ƙafafu mai siffar sukari 50 zuwa 1500 a kowace daƙiƙa a cikin minti ɗaya kacal.[13] Manyan ambaliyoyi guda biyu sun sake faruwa a daidai wannan wurin a cikin mako guda, amma babu kowa a wurin a waɗancan kwanakin. Ambaliyar mai kisa ta kasance ne sakamakon guguwar ruwan sama a wani ɓangare na kwaron da ke tara ruwa, inda gangaren duwatsu marasa ciyawa suka zama ruwan dare kuma siririyar ƙasar ta riga ta ƙoshi da ruwa.

Ambaliyar bazata ita ce nau'in ambaliyar da tafi zama ruwan dare a hanyoyin ruwa da yawanci suke a bushe a yankuna masu ƙarancin ruwa, waɗanda aka sani da sunan arroyos a kudu maso yammacin Amurka da sauran sunaye daban-daban a wasu wuraren. A cikin wannan yanayi, ruwan ambaliya na farko da ya zo yana raguwa yayin da yake jiƙa busasshiyar hanyar rafi mai yashi. Don haka, gaba-gaban ambaliyar yana ci gaba a hankali fiye da kwararar ruwan da ke zuwa daga baya da kuma mafi girma. Sakamakon haka, ɓangare mai hawa na jadawalin kwararar ruwa (hydrograph) yana ƙara sauri yayin da ambaliyar ke matsawa zuwa can ƙasa, har sai kwararar ruwan ta yi girma sosai ta yadda raguwar ruwan ta hanyar jiƙa ƙasa ta zama marar tasiri.

Ambaliyar gaɓar teku

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yankunan gaɓar teku na iya fuskantar ambaliyar ruwa sakamakon hauhawar igiyar ruwa ta guguwa (storm surges) da ke haɗuwa da babban raƙumin ruwa da kuma manyan raƙuman ruwa a teku, wanda ke haifar da raƙuman ruwa da ke tsallake katangar kariya ta ambaliya ko kuma a lokuta masu tsanani ta hanyar tsunami ko guguwa mai zafi. Hauhawar igiyar ruwa ta guguwa, ko dai daga guguwa mai zafi ko guguwa ta wajen yankuna masu zafi, tana faɗawa ƙarƙashin wannan rukunin. Hauhawar igiyar ruwa ta guguwa ita ce "ƙarin hauhawar ruwa da guguwa ke haifarwa, sama da kuma bayan hasashen raƙumin ruwa na falaki".[14] Sakamakon illolin sauyin yanayi (misali hauhawar matakin teku da ƙaruwar matsanancin yanayi) da kuma ƙaruwar al'ummar da ke rayuwa a yankunan gaɓar teku, lalacewar da ambaliyar gaɓar teku ke haifarwa ta daɗa tsananta kuma mutane da dama suna fuskantar tasirinta.[15]

Ambaliyar ruwa a wuraren da koguna ke haɗuwa da teku (estuaries) yawanci tana faruwa ne sakamakon haɗakar hauhawar igiyar ruwa ta guguwa da iskoki ke haifarwa da ƙarancin matsin lamba (barometric pressure) da kuma manyan raƙuman ruwa da ke haɗuwa da babban kwararar koguna na can sama.

Ambaliyar cikin birni

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ambaliyar cikin birni ita ce ambaliyar ƙasa ko gine-gine a cikin ginin muhalli, musamman a wuraren da ke da yawan jama'a, wanda ya faru sakamakon ruwan sama ya wuce ƙarfin tsarin magudanar ruwa, kamar magudanar ruwa na titi. Kodayake wani lokaci ana haifar da shi ta hanyar abubuwa kamar ambaliyar kogi ko hauhawar igiyar ruwa ta guguwa, ambaliyar cikin birni wani yanayi ne da ke da halaye na kansa, inda gajeren ruwan sama mai tsanani ko narkewar ƙanƙara na iya mamaye tsarin magudanar ruwa na cikin gida.

Ambaliya ta gangan

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ambaliyar ƙasa da gangan wadda da a ce ba haka ba da ta kasance a bushe tana iya faruwa don dalilai na aikin noma, soja ko kuma kula da tafiyar koguna. Wannan wani nau'i ne na aikin injiniya na ruwa (hydraulic engineering). Ambaliyar aikin noma na iya faruwa wajen shirya gonakin shinkafa don shuka shinkafar da ke buƙatar ruwa mai yawa a ƙasashe da dama.File:1938 Yellow River flood.jpg|thumb|Sojojin Kuomintang na ƙasar Sin lokacin ambaliyar Yellow River ta shekarar 1938 Ambaliyar ruwa don kula da koguna na iya faruwa a matsen karkatar da ruwan ambaliya a cikin kogi a matakin ambaliya na can sama daga yankunan da ake ɗaukar su da mafi daraja fiye da yankunan da ake sadakarwa ta wannan hanyar. Ana iya yin wannan don wani takamaiman dalili na lokaci kaɗan (ad hoc),[16] ko kuma na dindindin, kamar yadda ake yi a cikin abin da ake kira 'overlaten' (a zahiri "barin-kuskure"), wani ɓangare da aka rage tsayinsa da gangan a cikin katangar kariya ta kogunan Holland, kamar 'Beerse Overlaat' a cikin katangar hagu na Kogin Meuse tsakanin ƙauyukan Gassel da Linden, North Brabant.

Ambaliyar soja tana ƙirƙirar cikas a fagen fama wanda ke da nufin dakatar da motsi ko zirga-zirgar makiya.[17] Ana iya yin wannan don dalilai na kai hari (offensive) da kuma na kariya (defensive). Bugu da ƙari, tun da yake hanyoyin da ake amfani da su wani nau'i ne na aikin injiniya na ruwa, yana iya zama da amfani a bambanta tsakanin ambaliya ta gangan da aka sarrafa da kuma wadda ba a sarrafa ba. Misalan ambaliya ta gangan da aka sarrafa sun haɗa da waɗanda aka yi a Netherlands ƙarƙashin Jamhuriyar Holland da ƙasashen da suka gaje ta a wancan yankin[18][19] kuma an nuna su a cikin Layukan Ruwa na Holland guda biyu, da Stelling van Amsterdam, da Layin Ruwa na Frisian, da Layin IJssel, da Layin Peel-Raam, da kuma layin Grebbe a cikin waccan ƙasar. Domin a lissafa ta a matsayin "wadda aka sarrafa", ambaliyar soja dole ne ta la'akari da muradun al'ummar gari, ta hanyar ba su damar yin ƙaura akan lokaci (emergency evacuation), ta hanyar sanya ambaliyar ta zama mai iya juyawa (wato za a iya mayar da ruwan), da kuma ƙoƙarin rage mummunan tasirin ambaliyar ga tsarin muhalli (ecology). Wannan tasirin yana iya zama cutarwa kuma ta fuskar ilimin ruwan ƙasa (hydrogeological) idan ambaliyar ta ɗauki lokaci mai tsawo.[20]

Misalan ambaliya ta gangan da ba a sarrafa ba sune Kewaye na Biyu na Leiden[21] lokacin ɓangare na farko na Yaƙin Shekaru tamanin, da ambaliyar kwaron Yser lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Ɗaya,[22] da Ambaliyar Walcheren, da kuma Ambaliyar Wieringermeer lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu.

Sanadin Ambaliyar Ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ambaliyar ruwa sakamakon Guguwar Hudhud a Visakhapatnam, India

Ambaliyar ruwa tana faruwa ne sakamakon abubuwa da dama ko kuma haɗakar kowane guda daga cikin abubuwan da yawanci suka haɗa da dorewar matsanancin ruwan sama (ko dai a dunkule a wani yanki ko kuma a ko'ina a cikin yankin da ke tara ruwa), saurin narkewar ƙanƙara, tsananin iska a kan ruwa, sabon raƙumin ruwa da ba a saba gani ba, tsunami, ko kuma karyewar madatsun ruwa, katangar kariya ta koguna, tafkunan ajiye ruwa, ko wasu gine-gine da ke riƙe da ruwa. Ambaliyar ruwa na iya tsananta sakamakon ƙaruwar saman ƙasar da ba ya tsotse ruwa (impervious surface) ko kuma ta hanyar wasu haɗuran dabi'a kamar gobarar daji, wadda ke rage yawan bishiyoyi da ciyayi da za su iya tsotse ruwan sama.

A lokutan da ake ruwan sama, ana riƙe da wani ɓangare na ruwan a cikin tafkuna ko ƙasa, ciyayi da sauran tsire-tsire suna tsotse wani ɓangare, wani ɓangare kuma yana yin tururi zuwa sararin sama, sauran ruwan kuma yana gudu a kan ƙasa a matsayin gudanar ruwa na saman ƙasa. Ambaliyar ruwa tana faruwa ne lokacin da tafkuna, koramu, gadajen koguna, ƙasa, da ciyayi ba za su iya tsotse dukkan ruwan ba.

Wannan matsalar ta daɗa tsananta sakamakon ayyukan ɗan adam kamar kwashe ruwan dausayi (wetlands) waɗanda ta dabi'ance suke adana babban adadin ruwa, da kuma gina tituna ko fage masu siminti waɗanda ba sa tsotse ruwa ko kaɗan.[23] Hakan kan sa ruwa ya dinga gudu a kan ƙasa da yawar da hanyoyin rafuka ba za su iya kwashe shi ba, ko kuma wanda ba zai iya rashi a cikin tafkunan dabi'a ko madatsun ruwa na artificial da ɗan adam ya gina ba. Kusan kashi 30 cikin 100 na dukkan ruwan sama yana zama gudanar ruwa na saman ƙasa[24] kuma wannan adadin na iya ƙaruwa sakamakon ruwan da ke fitowa daga narkewar ƙanƙara.

Abubuwan da suka shafi can sama

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ambaliyar bazata a Ein Avdat, Negev, Israel

Ambaliyar kogi galibi tana faruwa ne sakamakon mamakon ruwan sama, wani lokacin kuma yana ƙaruwa saboda narkewar ƙanƙara. Ambaliyar da ke tasowa da sauri, ba tare da wani gargaɗi ba ko kuma da kaɗan, ana kiranta da ambaliyar bazata (flash flood). Ambaliyar bazata yawanci tana faruwa ne sakamakon tsananin ruwan sama a kan wani yanki kaɗan, ko kuma idan ƙasar yankin ta riga ta ƙoshi da ruwa sakamakon ruwan saman da aka yi a baya.

Adadi, wuri, da lokacin da ruwa ke isa hanyar magudanar ruwa daga ruwan sama na dabi'a da kuma sakin ruwa da aka sarrafa ko wanda ba a sarrafa ba daga madatsun ruwa, shi ke ayyana kwararar ruwa a wuraren da ke can ƙasa. Wani ɓangare na ruwan saman yana yin tururi, wani ɓangare yana ratsawa a hankali ta cikin ƙasa, wani ɓangare kuma ana iya adana shi na ɗan lokaci a matsayin ƙanƙara, sannan wani ɓangare na iya haifar da saurin gudanar ruwa daga saman abubuwa kamar dutse, siminti, kwanon rufi, da ƙasa daskararra ko wadda ta ƙoshi da ruwa. Rukunin ruwan saman da ke isa hanyar magudanar ruwa da sauri an lura yana farawa ne daga sifili (marar tasiri) ga ruwan sama marar ƙarfi a kan busasshiyar ƙasa mai siri, har zuwa kashi 170 cikin 100 ga ruwan sama mai ɗumi a kan tulin ƙanƙara.[25]

Mafi yawan bayanan ruwan sama sun dogara ne a kan auna zurfin ruwan da aka kiyasta a cikin tsayayyen lokaci. "Yawaitar" ma'aunin ruwan sama da ake buƙata ana iya ƙayyade shi daga adadin ma'aunai da suka wuce wancan matakin a cikin jimillar lokacin da ake da bayanan lura. Ana canza bayanan kowane lokaci zuwa "tsanani" ta hanyar raba kowane zurfi da aka auna da tsawon lokacin da ke tsakanin lokutan lura. Wannan tsanani zai kasance ƙasa da ainihin kololuwar tsanani idan tsawon lokacin da aka yi ruwan saman ya kasance ƙasa da tsayayyen lokacin da aka bayar da rahoton ma'aunin. Ruwan sama na guguwa (convective precipitation) yakan haifar da gajeren lokacin ruwan sama idan aka kwanta shi da ruwan sama na kan duwatsu (orographic precipitation). Tsawon lokaci, tsanani, da yawaitar ruwan sama suna da mahimmanci wajen hasashen ambaliyar ruwa. Gajeren lokacin ruwan sama ya fi tasiri ga ambaliyar ruwa a cikin ƙananan kwarurukan magudanar ruwa.[26]

Mafi mahimmancin abu na can sama wajen ƙayyade girman ambaliyar ruwa shine faɗin ƙasar da ke sama wadda ke tara ruwa zuwa yankin da ake nazari akai. Tsananin ruwan sama shine abu na biyu mafi mahimmanci ga kwarurukan da ba su kai kusan murabba'in mil 30 ba. Gangaren babban magudanar ruwa shine abu na biyu mafi mahimmanci ga kwaruruka mafi girma. Gangaren magudanar ruwa da tsananin ruwan sama suna zama abu na uku mafi mahimmanci ga ƙananan kwaruruka da manyan kwaruruka, bi da bi.[27]

"Lokacin Taruwa" (Time of Concentration) shine lokacin da ake buƙata don gudanar ruwa na saman ƙasa daga mafi nisa wurin yanki na can sama ya isa ga daidai wurin magudanar ruwa da ke sarrafa ambaliyar yankin da ake son kariya akai. Lokacin taruwa yana ayyana muhimmin tsawon lokaci na kololuwar ruwan sama ga yankin da ake nazari.[28] Muhimmin tsawon lokaci na tsananin ruwan sama yana iya zama na 'yan mintoci kaɗan don magudanar ruwa na kwanon rufi da wuraren ajiye motoci, yayin da taruwar ruwan sama na kwanaki da dama zai kasance mai muhimmanci ga kwarurukan koguna.

Abubuwan da suka shafi can ƙasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ruwan da ke gudu zuwa ƙasa a ƙarshe yana haɗuwa da yanayi na can ƙasa da ke jinkirta motsinsa. Ƙarshen iyaka a ambaliyar ƙasar gaɓar teku yawanci teku ne ko kuma wasu shinge na gaɓar teku waɗanda ke samar da tafkuna na dabi'a. A cikin ambaliyar ƙasashe aukuwa, sauye-sauyen tsayi kamar hauhawa da lallon igiyar ruwa (tidal fluctuations) sune manyan abubuwan da ke ƙayyade ambaliyar gaɓar teku da ta wuraren da koguna ke haɗuwa da teku. Abubuwan da ba a cika iya hasashentu ba kamar tsunami da hauhawar igiyar ruwa ta guguwa su ma suna iya haifar da sauye-sauyen tsayi a cikin manyan rukunonin ruwa. Tsayin ruwan da ke gudu yana sarrafa shi ne ta hanyar siffar magudanar kwararar ruwa kuma, musamman, ta zurfin magudanar, gudun kwararar ruwa da kuma adadin lallon ƙasa (sediments) da ke cikinsa.[27] Shingen magudanar kwararar ruwa kamar gadoji da kwaruruka suna karkata ga sarrafa tsayin ruwa sama da shingen. Ainihin wurin sarrafawa ga kowane sashe na magudanar ruwa na iya sauyawa tare da canjin tsayin ruwa, don haka wuri mafi kusa na iya sarrafawa ga ƙananan matakan ruwa har sai wuri mafi nisa ya sarrafa a mafi girman matakan ruwa.

Ainihin siffar magudanar ambaliyar ruwa na iya sauyawa ta hanyar girman ciyayi da bishiyoyi, taruwar ƙanƙara ko barago, ko kuma ginin gadoji, gine-gine, ko katangar kariya a cikin magudanar ambaliyar.

Ambaliyar lokaci-lokaci tana faruwa a koguna da dama, inda take samar da yanki da ke kewaye da kogi wanda aka sani da filin ambaliya (flood plain). Ko da lokacin da ruwan sama ya kasance marar ƙarfi, gaɓar tafkuna da guraren teku na iya fuskantar ambaliyar ruwa sakamakon tsananin iska—kamar lokacin guguwa mai zafi—wadda ke hura ruwa zuwa yankunan gaɓar teku.

Sauyin yanayi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ambaliyar raƙumin ruwa tana ƙaruwa sakamakon hauhawar matakin teku, lallon ƙasa, da kuma asarar shinge na dabi'a.[29]
Hauhawar matakin teku na dogon lokaci yana faruwa ne baya ga ambaliyar raƙumin ruwa ta lokaci-lokaci. NOAA tana hasashen matakai daban-daban na hauhawar matakin teku don gaɓar teku a cikin ƙasa guda.[30]

Mafi zafi na yanayi yana riƙe da ƙarin danshi, wanda ke haifar da ƙaruwar tsananin ruwan sama. Akwai ƙwaƙƙwaran shaida cewa dumamar yanayi da ɗan adam ke haifarwa ya ƙara yawan aukuwar matsanancin ruwan sama a duniya, wanda ke ƙara haɗarin ambaliyar ruwa. Sauyin yanayi kuma yana haifar da hauhawar matakin teku na duniya, wanda ke ƙara haɗarin ambaliyar gaɓar teku.

Haɗuwar ta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Matsananciyar ambaliyar ruwa galibi tana faruwa ne sakamakon haɗuwar abubuwa kamar tsananin ruwan sama mai ɗumi da ke narke tulin ƙanƙara, wanda ke haifar da shingen magudanar ruwa daga ƙanƙara mai iyo, da kuma sakin ruwa daga ƙananan madatsun ruwa kamar na dabbobin beaver.[31] Haɗuwar abubuwa na iya sa babban ambaliyar ruwa ta kasance mai yawan faruwa fiye da yadda ake tsammani daga sauƙaƙan tsarin hasashen kididdiga na ambaliyar shekaru 100 (100-year flood models) waɗanda ke la'akari da gudanar ruwa na saman ƙasa kawai a cikin magudanar ruwa marasa shinge.[32] Canjin siffar magudanar ruwa ta hanyar barago abu ne na yau da kullum lokacin da kwararar ruwa mai ƙarfi ke kwashe bishiyoyi da aka tumbe da kuma gine-gine da ababen hawa da ambaliyar ta lalata, gami da jiragen ruwa da kayan aikin jirgin ƙasa. Ma'aunai na baya-bayan nan a fagen fama lokacin ambaliyar Queensland ta shekarar 2010–11 sun nuna cewa duk wani ma'auni da ya dogara kawai akan gudun kwararar ruwa, zurfin ruwa ko takamaiman fito ba zai iya bayyana haɗarin da ke tattare da sauye-sauyen gudun kwararar ruwa da zurfinta ba.[33] Waɗannan la'akari sun ƙara yin watsi da haɗarin da ke tattare da manyan barago da ke biyo kwararar ruwan.[34]

Mummunan tasiri

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Gidajen gonakin gyaɗar bature (walnut) da ambaliyar ruwa ta shafa a Butte County bayan da raƙuman ruwan sama na sararin samaniya (atmospheric rivers) da dama suka afkawa California a farkon shekarar 2023

Ambaliyar ruwa na iya zama babban ikon barna. Lokacin da ruwa yake kwarara, yana da ikon rushe kowane nau'ikan gine-gine da abubuwa, kamar gadoji, tsarukan gine-gine, gidaje, bishiyoyi, da motoci. Lalacewar tattalin arziki, zamantakewa, da muhallin halitta sune abubuwan da ambaliyar ruwa ke shafa, kuma tasirin da ambaliyar ke da shi a wadannan fannoni na iya zama mai ban tsoro.[35] Akwai alaƙa mai ƙarfi tsakanin ambaliyar ruwa da aikin gona, yanayi, tattalin arziki, da cututtuka (FACED).[36] Ambaliyar ruwa ta haifar da asarar da ta wuce dala tiriliyan 1.5 ga aikin gona tsakanin 1991 da 2023, wanda ke wakiltar mafi munanan nau'in haɗari ga aikin gona na duniya kuma yana nuna raunin tsarin aikin gona ga bala'o'in da suka shafi ruwa.[37]

Tasiri kan ababen more rayuwa da al'ummomi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Asarar tattalin arziki a fannin aikin gona da sauran fannoni da ambaliyar ruwa ta haifar idan aka kwatanta da sauran nau'ikan haɗari.

An sami fuskantar ambaliyar ruwa da dama a duniya wadanda suka haifar da mummunar barna ga ababen more rayuwa, muhallin halitta da rayuwar ɗan adam.[35]

Ambaliyar ruwa na iya samun mummunan tasiri ga al'ummomin ɗan adam. Abubuwan da ke haifar da ambaliyar ruwa a duk duniya suna ƙaruwa ta fuskar yawa da tsanani, wanda ke haifar da ƙarin tsada ga al'ummomi.[35]

Mummunar ambaliyar koguna na iya fitowa daga manyan gazawar ababen more rayuwa, galibi rugujewar madatsar ruwa (dam). Hakanan yana iya faruwa ta hanyar canjin hanyar magudanar ruwa sakamakon zaftarewar ƙasa, girgizar ƙasa ko aman wuta. Misalai sun haɗa da fashewar ambaliyar ruwa farat ɗaya da lahar (gudun laka na dutsen mai aman wuta). Tsunami na iya haifar da mummunar ambaliyar ruwa a yankunan da ke kusa da teku, galibi sakamakon girgizar ƙasa da ke faruwa a ƙarƙashin teku.

Tasirin tattalin arziki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Farkon sakamakon ambaliyar ruwa sun haɗa da asarar rayuka da lalacewar gine-gine da sauran tsaruka, gami da gadoji, tsarin magudanar ruwa, hanyoyi, da madudanai. Tasirin tattalin arziki da ambaliyar ruwa ke haifarwa na iya zama mai tsanani.[9]

Kowace shekara ambaliyar ruwa tana jifawa ƙasashe asarar biliyoyin daloli da ke barazana ga rayuwar daidaikun mutane.[38] A sakamakon haka, akwai kuma gagarumar barazana ga zamantakewa da tattalin arzikin al'ummomin da ke cikin haɗari a duniya saboda ambaliyar ruwa.[38] Misali, a Bangladesh a shekarar 2007, ambaliyar ruwa ce ta haddasa lalacewar gidaje fiye da miliyan ɗaya. Kuma a kowace shekara a Amurka, ambaliyar ruwa tana haifar da asarar sama da dala biliyan 7.[39]

Laka da ambaliyar ruwa ta ijiye a wannan gidan lokacin ambaliyar Kerala na 2018 a India. Ambaliyar ruwa ba wai kawai tana lalata abubuwa da ruwa ba ne, har ila yau tana iya ijiye tarin laka da yashi.

Ruwan ambaliyar ruwa yawanci yana mamaye ƙasar noma, wanda ke sa ƙasar ta gaza yin aiki kuma yana hana dasa shuki ko girbin amfanin gona, wanda ke iya haifar da ƙarancin abinci ga ɗan adam da dabbobin gona. Ana iya yin asarar dukkan girbi na wata ƙasa a cikin mawuyacin yanayi na ambaliyar ruwa. Wasu nau'ikan bishiyoyi ba za su iya tsira ba idan ruwan ambaliyar ya dade yana mamaye tsarin saiwowinsu.[40]

Ambaliyar ruwa a yankunan da mutane ke zaune tana da babban tasiri ga tattalin arzikin unguwannin da abin ya shafa. A Amurka, masana masana'antu sun kiyasta cewa dausayi ko ruwan da ke zama a rukunin ginin ƙasa (basements) na iya rage darajar kadarori da kashi 10 zuwa 25 cikin ɗari kuma ana bayyana shi a matsayin ɗayan manyan dalilan da ke sa mutane ƙin siyan gida.[41] A cewar Hukumar Ba da Agajin Gaggawa ta Amurka (FEMA), kusan kashi 40 cikin ɗari na ƙananan sana'o'i ba sa sake buɗe kofofinsu bayan bala'in ambaliyar ruwa.[42] A Amurka, akwai tsarin inshora don asarar ambaliyar ruwa ga gidaje da kamfanoni.[43]

Tattalin arziki mai wahala saboda ɗan lokaci na raguwar yawon buɗe ido, tsadar sake ginawa, ko ƙarancin abinci da ke haifar da ƙarin farashi sune abubuwan da ke biyo bayan mummunar ambaliyar ruwa. Tasirin ga waɗanda abin ya shafa na iya haifar da lahani ga tunani da kwakwalwa, musamman inda mace-mace, munanan raunuka da asarar dukiya suka auku.

Tasiri kan lafiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ambaliyar ruwa ta yankin teku a wata al'umma a Florida, Amurka
Ambaliyar ruwa bayan guguwar Bangladesh ta 1991, wadda ta kashe mutane kusan 140,000

Asarar rayuka da ke da alaƙa kai tsaye da ambaliyar ruwa galibi suna faruwa ne sakamakon nitsewa a ruwa; ruwan da ke cikin ambaliyar yana da zurfi sosai kuma yana da igiyar ruwa mai ƙarfi.[44] Mace-mace ba sa faruwa ne kawai daga nitsewa, mace-mace suna da alaƙa da ƙarancin ruwa a jiki (dehydration), bugun zafi (heat stroke), bugun zuciya (heart attack) da kowace irin rashin lafiya da ke buƙatar kayan aikin likita waɗanda ba za a iya isar da su ba.[44] Raunuka na iya haifar da yawan mace-mace ko jiyya lokacin da ambaliyar ruwa ta auku. Raunuka ba wai kawai suna shafar waɗanda ke cikin ambaliyar kai tsaye ba ne: ƙungiyoyin ceto har ma da mutanen da ke kai kayan agaji na iya samun rauni. Raunuka na iya faruwa kafin, lokacin da kuma bayan ambaliyar ruwa.[44] Lokacin ambaliyar ruwa, haɗari suna faruwa da faduwar baraguzan gine-gine ko kowane ɗayan abubuwa masu saurin tafiya a cikin ruwan. Bayan ambaliyar ruwa, ƙoƙarin ceto shine lokacin da raunuka masu yawa zasu iya faruwa.[44]

Cuttukan da ke yaɗuwa suna ƙaruwa saboda yawancin ƙwayoyin cuta (pathogens da bacteria) da ruwan ke ɗauka da jigila. Akwai cututtukan da ake samu ta gurbataccen ruwa da yawa kamar kwalara, hepatitis A, hepatitis E da cututtukan zawo (diarrhea), don ambata kaɗan. Cututtukan ciki da na zawo sun zama ruwan dare gama gari saboda ƙarancin tsaftataccen ruwa lokacin ambaliyar ruwa. Sau da yawa ana gurbata hanyoyin samar da tsaftataccen ruwa lokacin da ambaliyar ruwa ta auku. Hepatitis A da E sun zama ruwan dare saboda rashin tsabtace muhalli a cikin ruwa da kuma a wuraren zama, ya danganta da inda ambaliyar take da kuma yadda al'umma take da shiri don fuskantar ambaliyar.[44]

Lokacin da ambaliyar ruwa ta afku, mutane na iya rasa kusan dukkan amfanin gonakansu, dabbobinsu, da ajiyar abincinsu sannan su fuskanci yunwa.[45]

Ambaliyar ruwa kuma tana yawan lalata hanyoyin rarraba wutar lantarki kuma wani lokacin ma wuraren samar da wutar lantarki, wanda hakan ke haifar da tarin matsaloli sakamakon rashin wutar lantarki. Wannan ya haɗa da asarar tace ruwan sha da samar da ruwa, wanda ka iya haifar da rashin ruwan sha ko gurbataccen ruwa mai tsanani. Hakanan yana iya haifar da asarar wuraren zubar da ruwan kwasfa (sewage). Rashin tsaftataccen ruwa haɗe da najasar ɗan adam a cikin ruwan ambaliyar yana haɓaka haɗarin cututtukan da ake samu ta gurbataccen ruwa, waɗanda zasu iya haɗawa da zazzabin taifot (typhoid), giardia, cryptosporidium, kwalara da sauran cututtuka da yawa dangane da inda ambaliyar take.[Merge this list with previous list]

Lalacewar hanyoyi da ababen more rayuwa na sufuri na iya sa ya yi wahala a tattara agaji ga waɗanda abin ya shafa ko ba da maganin lafiyar gaggawa.

Ambaliyar ruwa na iya haifar da jika gidaje na dindindin, wanda ke haifar da girman fure ko burodin daji a cikin gida (indoor mold) da kuma haifar da illa ga lafiya, musamman alamun matsalar numfashi.[46] Cututtukan numfashi sun zama ruwan dare bayan bala'in ya auku. Wannan ya danganta da adadin lalacewar ruwa da fure ko burodin daji (mold) da ke girma bayan faruwar lamarin. Bincike ya nuna cewa za a sami karuwar kashi 30 zuwa 50% na matsalolin lafiyar numfashi sakamakon dumi da bayyanar mold ga waɗanda ke zaune a yankunan dake kusa da teku da wuraren dausayi. Gurbataccen fungal (noman gasashen daji) a cikin gidaje yana da alaƙa da ƙaruwar ciwon sanyi (allergic rhinitis) da asma.[47] Cututtukan da kwari ke ɗauka (Vector-borne diseases) su ma suna ƙaruwa, saboda raguwar ruwan da ya tsaya bayan ambaliyar ta lafa. Cututtukan da kwari ke ɗauka sune zazzabin cizon sauro (malaria), dengue, West Nile virus, da zazzabin rawaya (yellow fever).[44] Ambaliyar ruwa na iya samun babban tasiri ga lafiyar tunanin mutum da zamantakewar wadanda abin ya shafa. Mutane suna fama da asara iri-iri da matsin lamba (stress). Ɗaya daga cikin cututtukan da aka fi jiyya a cikin matsalolin lafiya na dogon lokaci shine damuwa na bacin rai (depression) da ambaliyar ta haifar da dukkan bala'o'in da ke tafiya tare da ita.[44]

Asarar rayuka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A ƙasa akwai jerin mafi munanan ambaliyar ruwa a duniya, yana nuna abubuwan da suka faru da adadin mace-mace a matakin ko sama da mutane 100,000.

Adadin mace-maceLamariWuriShekara
2,500,000–3,700,000[48]Ambaliyar ruwa ta China ta 1931China1931
900,000–2,000,000Ambaliyar Kogin Yellow ta 1887China1887
500,000–700,000Ambaliyar Kogin Yellow ta 1938China1938
231,000Rushewar madatsar ruwan Banqiao, sakamakon Guguwar Nina. Kimanin mutane 86,000 ne suka mutu sanadin ambaliyar ruwa sannan wasu 145,000 suka mutu sanadin cututtukan da suka biyo baya.China1975
230,000Tsunami ta Tekun Indiya ta 2004Indonesia2004
145,000Ambaliyar kogin Yangtze ta 1935China1935
100,000+Ambaliyar St. Felix, hawan igiyar ruwa ta guguwaNetherlands1530
100,000Ambaliyar Hanoi da Kogin Red River DeltaNorth Vietnam1971
100,000Ambaliyar kogin Yangtze ta 1911China1911

Kyawawan tasiri (amfani)

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ambaliyar ruwa (musamman ambaliya mai yawan aukuwa ko ƙanana) tana iya kawo fa'idodi da dama, kamar sake cika ruwan ƙarƙashin ƙasa, sa ƙasa ta kasance mai albarka, da kuma ƙara sinadaran gina jiki a wasu nau'ikan ƙasa. Saboda wannan dalili, ambaliyar ruwa ta lokaci-lokaci ta kasance mai mahimmanci ga jin daɗin rayuwar tsoffin al'ummomi da ke zaune a gefen korayen kogunan Tigris-Euphrates, Kogin Nilu, Kogin Indus, Ganges, da Kogin Yellow, da sauransu.

Ruwan ambaliya yana samar da albarkatun ruwa da ake buƙata sosai a yankuna masu ƙarancin ruwa (arid) da matsakaicin ƙarancin ruwa (semi-arid) inda rarraba ruwan sama zai iya kasancewa maras daidaito a tsawon shekara, kuma yana kashe kwari a ƙasar noma. Ambaliyar ruwan daɗi tana taka muhimmiyar rawa musamman wajen warkaswa da kiyaye tsarin halittu (ecosystems) a hanyoyin koguna, kuma ita ce babban saniyar ware wajen kiyaye raye-rayen halittu daban-daban (biodiversity) na kwarurukan ambaliya.[49] Ambaliyar ruwa tana iya yaɗa sinadaran gina jiki zuwa tafunansu da koguna, wanda hakan zai iya haifar da haɓakar kwayoyin halitta (biomass) da inganta aikin kamun kifi na tsawon ƴan shekaru.

Ga wasu nau'ikan kifi, kwarin da ambaliya ta mamaye yana iya zama wuri mai kyau don kwan tsofinsu, tare da ƙarancin dabbobi masu cin namansu da kuma ƙarin matakan sinadaran abinci.[50] Kifaye irin su kifin yanayi (weather fish) suna amfani da ambaliyar ruwa don isa sabbin wuraren zama. Al'ummomin tsuntsaye su ma suna iya amfana daga haɓakar samar da abinci da ambaliyar ruwa ke haifarwa.[51]

Haka kuma, damar gudanar da wutar lantarki ta ruwa (hydropower), wanda tushen makamashi ne mai sabuntawa, tana da gaurayar girma a yankunan da ke fuskantar ambaliyar ruwa.

Kariya daga ambaliyar ruwa da haɗuran da ke tattare da ita

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gudanar da ambaliyar ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
An gina madatsar ruwa (weir) a Kogin Humber (Ontario) don hana sake aukuwar mummunar ambaliyar ruwa.
Page 'Flood risk management' not found

Misalan gudanar da ambaliyar ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A ƙasashe da dama a faɗin duniya, ana gudanar da kulawa ta musamman ga hanyoyin ruwa da ke fuskantar ambaliya. Ana amfani da kariya kamar madatsun adana ruwa (detention basins), gadojin kariya (levees),[52] ganyayen kariya (bunds), madatsun ruwa (reservoirs), da madatsun daidaita kwarara (weirs) don hana hanyoyin ruwa mambaye kwarurukansu. Lokacin da waɗannan kariya suka gaza, ana amfani da matakan gaggawa kamar buhunan yashi ko buhunan roba masu latsawa da iska don ƙoƙarin dakatar da ambaliyar. An magance ambaliyar ruwa ta yankunan teku a sassan Turai da Amurka ta hanyar kariyar teku, kamar ganwar teku (sea walls), ƙarin yashi a bakin teku (beach nourishment), da tsibiran kariya (barrier islands).

A yankunan da ke kusa da koguna da rafuka (riparian zone), ana iya ɗaukar matakan magance zaftarewar ƙasa don ƙoƙarin jinkirta ko juya ikon dabi'a da ke sa hanyoyin ruwa karkata a cikin dogon lokaci. Haka kuma, ana iya gina hanyoyin sarrafa ambaliya, kamar madatsun ruwa (dams), da kuma kula da su a tsawon lokaci don ƙoƙarin rage aukuwa da tsananin ambaliyar ruwa. A Amurka, Hukumar Injiniyoyin Sojin Amurka tana kula da hanyoyin sadarwa na irin waɗannan madatsun ruwa na sarrafa ambaliya.

A yankunan da ke fuskantar ambaliyar ruwa a birane, mafita ɗaya ita ce gyarawa da faɗaɗa tsarin magudanar ruwa na ɗan adam da ababen more rayuwa na ruwan sama. Wata dabarar kuma ita ce rage fuskokin da ba sa tsotse ruwa a tituna, wuraren aje motoci, da gine-gine ta hanyar hanyoyin magudanar ruwa na dabi'a, shimfiɗar titi mai kofofin tsotse ruwa (porous paving), da dausayi (wanda gaba ɗaya ake kira korayen ababen more rayuwa ko tsarin magudanar ruwa na birane mai dorewa (SUDS)). Yankunan da aka gano suna fuskantar ambaliya ana iya mayar da su wuraren shakatawa da filayen wasa waɗanda zasu iya jure ambaliyar lokaci-lokaci. Ana iya amfani da dokoki don buƙatar masu haɓaka gidaje su ajiye ruwan sama a rukunin ginin kuma su buƙaci gine-gine su kasance a ɗaukake, sanye da kariyar ganwar ambaliya (floodwalls) da gadojin kariya (levees), ko kuma a tsara su don jure ambaliyar na ɗan lokaci. Masu mallakar dukiya su ma suna iya saka hannun jari da kansu, kamar sake fasalin filayensu don karkatar da kwararar ruwa daga gine-ginesu da kuma sanya gangunan tatar ruwan sama, famfunan kwashe ruwa (sump pumps), da bawul ɗin hana ruwa komawa baya (check valves).

Tsarin tsaro na ambaliyar ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Bayan ambaliyar ruwa a Colorado, 2013
Aikin ceto lokacin ambaliyar ruwa a Lardin Nangarhar, Afghanistan a shekarar 2010
Gajeriyar ambaliyar ruwa farat ɗaya (flash flooding) da ta faru sakamakon babban ruwan sama da ya sauka a cikin ƙanƙanin lokaci

A Amurka, Hukumar Kula da Yanayi ta Ƙasa tana ba da shawarar "Juya Baya, Kada Ka Nitshe" (Turn Around, Don't Drown) lokacin ambaliyar ruwa; wato, tana ba da shawarar mutane su fita daga yankin ambaliyar, maimakon ƙoƙarin tsallake shi. A matakin farko, mafi kyawun kariya daga ambaliyar ruwa shine neman tudu mafi girma don ayyuka masu daraja yayin da ake daidaita haɗarin da za a iya hangowa da fa'idojin zama a yankunan haɗarin ambaliya.[53]:22–23 Kamata ya yi a gina muhimman wuraren tsaron al'umma, kamar asibitoci, cibiyoyin gudanar da ayyukan gaggawa, da sassan ƴan sanda, kashe gobara, da ayyukan ceto, a yankunan da ba su cika fuskantar haɗarin ambaliya ba. Tsaruka, kamar gadoji, waɗanda dole ne su kasance a yankunan haɗarin ambaliya, kamata ya yi a tsara su don jure ambaliyar. Yankunan da suka fi fuskantar haɗarin ambaliyar ruwa ana iya amfani da su don ayyuka masu mahimmanci waɗanda za a iya watsar da su na ɗan lokaci yayin da mutane ke komawa wurare masu aminci lokacin da ambaliyar ta kusato.

Tsara tsaron ambaliyar ruwa ya ƙunshi fannoni da dama na bincike da injiniyanci, gami da:

  • lura da tsayin ambaliyar da ta gabata da ta yanzu da kuma yankunan da aka mamaye,
  • nazarin ƙididdiga, tsarin ruwa (hydrologic), da tsarin motsin ruwa (hydraulic model),
  • taswirar yankunan da aka mamaye da tsayin ambaliyar don yanayin ambaliyar nan gaba,
  • tsarin amfani da ƙasa na dogon lokaci da dokoki,
  • tsarin injiniyanci da gina tsaruka don sarrafawa ko jure ambaliyar ruwa,
  • sanya idanu na matsakaicin lokaci, hasashen ambaliyar ruwa, da tsara matakan gaggawa, da kuma
  • sanya idanu na ɗan gajeren lokaci, gargaɗin ambaliyar ruwa, da ayyukan mayar da martani.

Kowane jigo yana gabatar da tambayoyi daban-daban amma masu alaƙa da juna tare da mabanbantan fannoni da siffofi a cikin lokaci, sarari, da mutanen da abin ya shafa. An yi ƙoƙarin fahimta da sarrafa tsarin da ke aiki a kwarurukan ambaliyar ruwa na aƙalla shekaru dubu shida.[54][page needed]

A Amurka, Kungiyar Masu Gudanar da Kwarurukan Ambaliyar Ruwa ta Jiha tana aiki don haɓaka ilimi, manufofi, da ayyukan da ke rage asarar yanzu da na gaba, tsada, da wahalar ɗan adam da ambaliyar ruwa ke haifarwa, da kuma kare ayyukan dabi'a da masu fa'ida na kwarurukan ambaliya – duka ba tare da haifar da mummunan tasiri ba.[55] Ana samun jerin misalan mafi kyawun ayyuka don rage radadin bala'o'i a Amurka daga Hukumar Ba da Agajin Gaggawa ta Tarayya.[56]

Tsaron tsaftacewa bayan ambaliyar ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ayyukan tsaftacewa biyo bayan ambaliyar ruwa galibi suna haifar da haɗari ga ma'aikata da masu saƙar rai da ke da hannu a ƙoƙarin. Haɗarin da ka iya aukuwa sun haɗa da haɗarin girgizar lantarki, bayyanar iskar carbon monoxide, haɗarin jijiyoyi da ƙasusuwa (musculoskeletal), matsin zafi ko sanyi mai tsanani, haɗarin da ke da alaƙa da motoci, gobara, nitsewa, da bayyanar abubuwa masu haɗari. Saboda wuraren bala'in ambaliyar ruwa ba su da tabbas, ma'aikatan tsaftacewa na iya fuskantar baraguzan gine-gine masu kaifi, haɗarin ƙwayoyin cuta (biological hazards) a cikin ruwan ambaliyar, layukan lantarki da aka bayyana, jini ko sauran ruwan jiki, da gawarwakin dabbobi da na ɗan adam. Wajen tsara abubuwa da mayar da martani ga bala'o'in ambaliyar ruwa, manajoji suna ba ma'aikata kwalkwali (hard hats), madubin kariya (goggles), safar hannu mai kauri, rigunan kariya na lilo a ruwa (life jackets), da takalman ruwa maras shiga ruwa masu ƙarfe a gaba da tafin takalmin.[57]

Hasashen ambaliyar ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Ambaliyar ruwa kusa da Key West, Florida, Amurka sakamakon hawan igiyar ruwan guguwa daga Guguwar Wilma a watan Oktoba na shekarar 2005

Ana iya yin nazarin kididdiga na jerin matsakaicin yawan kwararar ruwa na shekara-shekara a wani sashe na rafi don kiyasin ambaliyar ruwa ta shekaru 100 da sauran lokutan da ambaliyar ke iya sake aukuwa a wurin. Kiyasin makamancin wannan daga wurare da dama a yankuna masu rarraba ruwa iri ɗaya ana iya haɗa su da siffofin kowane kwarin magudanar ruwa da za a iya aunawa don ba da damar kiyasin kai-tsaye na lokutan sake aukuwar ambaliya ga sassan rafi da ba su da isasshen bayanai don nazarin kai-tsaye.

Tsarin samfuran zahiri na sassan madudanai gabaɗaya an fahimce su da kyau kuma suna lissafin zurfi da yankin da ambaliya za ta mamaye don takamaiman yanayin madudani da ƙayyadaddun yawan kwararar ruwa, kamar don amfani a taswirar kwarurukan ambaliya da inshorar ambaliyar ruwa. Akasin haka, idan aka ba da yankin ambaliyar da aka fuskanta kwanan nan da yanayin madudani, samfurin zai iya lissafin yawan kwararar ruwa. Idan aka yi amfani da shi ga fuskoki daban-daban na madudanai da yawan kwararar ruwa, samfurin sashi zai iya ba da gudunmawa wajen zaɓar mafi kyawun tsari don canza fasalin madudani. Akwai samfuran sassa daban-daban har zuwa shekarar 2015, ko dai samfuran 1D (matakan ambaliya da ake aunawa a cikin madudanin rafi) ko samfuran 2D (zurfin ambaliya mabanbanta da ake aunawa a fadin fadin kwarin ambaliya). HEC-RAS,[58] wanda shine samfurin Cibiyar Injiniyan Ruwa, yana cikin shahararrun manhajoji, domin ana samunsa kyauta ba tare da biya ba. Sauran samfuran kamar TUFLOW[59] suna haɗa sassan 1D da 2D don fitar da zurfin ambaliya a fadin madudanai na koguna da daukacin kwarin ambaliya.

Samfuran tsarin zahiri na cikakkun kwarurukan magudanar ruwa sun fi rikitarwa. Kodayake an fahimci matakai da dama da kyau a wani matsayi ko don ƙanƙanin yanki, wasu ba a cika fahimtar su ba a dukkan matakai, kuma mu'amalar matakai a ƙarƙashin yanayin yanayi na yau da kullun ko mai tsanani na iya zama maras tabbas. Samfuran kwaruruka yawanci suna haɗa sassan tsarin saman ƙasa (don kiyasin yawan ruwan sama ko nidin ƙanƙara da ke isa ga madudani) tare da jerin samfuran sassa. Misali, samfurin kwari zai iya lissafin jadawalin kwararar ruwa (hydrograph) wanda zai iya haifar da guguwar shekaru 100, kodayake lokacin sake aukuwar guguwa ba cika zama daidai da na ambaliyar da ke da alaƙa da ita ba. Ana amfani da samfuran kwaruruka galibi wajen hasashen ambaliyar ruwa da gargaɗi, haka kuma wajen nazarin tasirin canjin amfani da ƙasa da canjin yanayi.

A Amurka, tsarin haɗin gwiwa don samfuran kwamfuta na ruwa na ainihin lokaci yana amfani da bayanan da aka fuskanta daga Hukumar Binciken Kasa ta Amurka (USGS),[60] cibiyoyin sadarwa na sa ido na haɗin gwiwa daban-daban,[61] na'urorin auna yanayi na atomatik daban-daban, Cibiyar Sa Ido ta Ruwa ta Ƙasa ta NOAA (NOHRSC),[62] kamfanonin samar da wutar lantarki ta ruwa daban-daban, da sauran su, waɗanda aka haɗa da hasashen adadin ruwan sama (QPF) na ruwan sama da ake tsammani da/ko nidin ƙanƙara don samar da hasashen ruwa na yau da kullun ko lokacin da buƙata ta taso.[63] Hukumar NWS kuma tana haɗa gwiwa da Hukumar Muhalli ta Kanada akan hasashen ruwa wanda ke shafar Amurka da Kanada, kamar a yankinu na Saint Lawrence Seaway. Tsarin Sa Ido Kan Ambaliyar Ruwa na Duniya, "GFMS", wata na'urar kwamfuta ce da ke tsara taswirar yanayin ambaliyar ruwa a duk duniya, kuma ana samunta a yanar gizo.[64] Masu amfani a kowane sashi na duniya za su iya amfani da GFMS don sanin lokacin da ambaliyar ruwa zata iya aukuwa a yankinsu. GFMS tana amfani da bayanan ruwan sama daga tauraron ɗan adam na NASA mai sa ido kan Duniya da Tauraron Ɗan Adam na Auna Ruwan Sama na Duniya, "GPM". Ana haɗa bayanan ruwan sama daga GPM tare da samfurin saman ƙasa wanda ke ƙunshi bayanan bishiyoyi da ciyayi, nau'in ƙasa, da yanayin ƙasa don sanin yawan ruwan da ke tsotsewa a cikin ƙasa, da kuma yawan ruwan da ke kwarara zuwa koguna.

Masu amfani za su iya duba ƙididdigar ruwan sama, kwararar koguna, zurfin ruwa, da ambaliyar ruwa a kowane sa'o'i 3, a kowane maki na grid mai tazarar kilomita 12 a taswirar duniya. Hasashen waɗannan abubuwa yana nuna har tsawon kwanaki 5 a nan gaba. Masu amfani za su iya faɗaɗa taswirar don ganin taswirar mamayewar ruwa (yankunan da aka kiyasta ruwa zai rufe) a cikin tazarar kilomita 1.[65]

Ambaliyar ruwa a titin Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil a watan Afrilu na shekarar 2013

Hango ambaliyar ruwa kafin ta auku yana ba da damar ɗaukar matakan kariya da kuma yi wa mutane gargaɗi[66] domin su kasance cikin shiri tun da wuri don fuskantar yanayin ambaliyar. Misali, manoma za su iya kwashe dabbobi daga yankuna masu rariyar ƙasa kuma hukumomin samar da ababen more rayuwa za su iya sanya tanadin gaggawa don karkatar da ayyukansu idan buƙata ta taso. Haka kuma, jami'an agajin gaggawa za su iya yin tanadi don samun isassun kayan aiki kafin lokaci don mayar da martani ga abubuwan gaggawa yayin da suke aukuwa. Mutane za su iya ficewa daga yankunan da ambaliyar za ta mamaye.

Don yin hasashen ambaliyar ruwa mafi inganci ga hanyoyin ruwa, yana da kyau a sami dogon jerin bayanai na tarihi da ke haɗa kwararar rafuka da abubuwan da suka faru na ruwan sama da aka auna a baya.[67] Haɗa wannan bayani na tarihi tare da sanin ainihin lokaci game da ƙarfin girma a yankunan tara ruwa, kamar ragowar sarari a madatsun ruwa, matakan ruwan ƙarƙashin ƙasa, da matakin jikewar ruwa na rijiyoyin ƙarƙashin ƙasa (aquifers) na yankin shi ma ana buƙata don yin hasashen ambaliyar ruwa mafi inganci.

Kiyasin ruwan sama ta hanyar Radar da dabarun hasashen yanayi na gabaɗaya su ma muhimman sassa ne na ingantaccen hasashen ambaliyar ruwa. A yankunan da ake samun ingantattun bayanai, ana iya hango ƙarfi da tsayin ambaliyar ruwa cikin daidaito mai kyau da kuma isasshen lokacin shiri. Sakamakon hasashen ambaliyar ruwa yawanci shine matsakaicin matakin ruwa da ake tsammani da kuma lokacin da ake kyautata zaton zai isa ga muhimman wurare a tsawon hanyar ruwa,[63] kuma yana iya ba da damar lissafin yuwuwar lokacin sake aukuwar ambaliyar a ƙididdigance. A ƙasashe da dama da suka ci gaba, yankunan birane da ke cikin haɗarin ambaliyar ruwa ana kare su daga ambaliyar shekaru 100 – wato ambaliyar da ke da yuwuwar kusan kashi 63% (wato 1 − 0.99100, ko kusan 1 − 1/e) na aukuwa a kowane lokaci na shekaru 100. A cewar Cibiyar Hasashen Kogin Arewa maso Gabas (RFC) ta Hukumar Kula da Yanayi ta Amurka (NWS) a Taunton, Massachusetts, ƙa'idar gama-gari don hasashen ambaliyar ruwa a yankunan birane ita ce cewa ana buƙatar aƙalla inci 1 (25 mm) na ruwan sama a cikin kusan sa'a guda don fara tara ruwa mai yawa akan fuskokin da ba sa tsotse ruwa. Yawancin sassan RFC na NWS suna fitar da Gargaɗin Ambaliyar Ruwa ta Gaggawa (Flash Flood Guidance) da Gargaɗin Tushen Ruwa (Headwater Guidance) akai-akai, waɗanda ke nuna adadin ruwan sama na gabaɗaya da zai buƙaci sauka a cikin ƙanƙanin lokaci don haifar da ambaliyar gaggawa ko ambaliyar ruwa akan manyan kwarurukan ruwa.[68]

Karantar haɗarin ambaliyar ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ana iya bayyana haɗarin ambaliyar ruwa a matsayin haɗarin da ambaliyar ke haifarwa ga daidaikun mutane, dukiya, da yanayin ƙasa dabi'a dangane da takamaiman lahani da rauni. Girman haɗarin ambaliyar ruwa yana iya tasiri ga nau'ikan dabarun rage radadin da ake buƙata da kuma aiwatarwa.[69]

Babban sashe na al'ummar duniya yana zaune ne kusa da manyan bakunan teku, yayin da manyan birane da dama da yankunan aikin gona ke kusa da kwarurukan ambaliya. Akwai gagarumin haɗari na ƙurban ambaliyar ruwa ta bakin teku da ta koguna sakamakon sauyin yanayi.[10]

Al'umma da al'ada

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Mutane suna neman mafaka daga ambaliyar ruwa a Java, c. 1865–1876

Tatsuniyoyi da addini

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
"The Deluge" (Ambaliyar Ruwa), hoton bango na littafin Baibul mai hoto na Gustave Doré

Asalin kalma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kalmar "flood" (ambaliya) ta fito ne daga tsohon yaren Ingantacce (Old English) flōd, kalma ce da aka saba amfani da ita a yarukan Jamusanci (idan aka kwatanta da yaren Jamusanci Flut, da yaren mutanen Holland (Dutch) vloed daga tushe ɗaya da ake gani a kalmar 'flow' da 'float'; sannan a kwatanta ta da yaren Latin fluctus, flumen), ma'anarta ita ce "kwararar ruwa, igiyar ruwa, mamaye ƙasa da ruwa ya yi, babban rigyawa, Ambaliyar Annabi Nuhu; tarin ruwa, kogi, teku, ko raƙuman ruwa".[70][71] Tsohuwar kalmar Ingantacce ta flōd ta fito ne daga yaren Proto-Germanic floduz (yaren Old Frisian flod, yaren Old Norse floð, yaren Middle Dutch vloet, yaren mutanen Holland (Dutch) vloed, yaren Jamusanci Flut, da yaren Gothic flodus duk sun fito ne daga floduz).[70]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ MSN Encarta Dictionary, Flood Archived 2011-02-04 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved on 2006-12-28, on 2009-10-31
  2. ↑ Seneviratne, S.I., X. Zhang, M. Adnan, W. Badi, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, S. Ghosh, I. Iskandar, J. Kossin, S. Lewis, F. Otto, I. Pinto, M. Satoh, S.M. Vicente-Serrano, M. Wehner, and B. Zhou, 2021: Chapter 11: Weather and Climate Extreme Events in a Changing Climate. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1513–1766, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.013.
  3. ↑ Attribution of Extreme Weather Events in the Context of Climate Change (Report). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 2016. pp. 127–136. doi:10.17226/21852. ISBN 978-0-309-38094-2. Archived from the original on 2022-02-15. Retrieved 2020-02-22.
  4. ↑ Hirabayashi, Yukiko; Mahendran, Roobavannan; Koirala, Sujan; Konoshima, Lisako; Yamazaki, Dai; Watanabe, Satoshi; Kim, Hyungjun; Kanae, Shinjiro (September 2013). "Global flood risk under climate change". Nature Climate Change (in Turanci). 3 (9): 816–821. Bibcode:2013NatCC...3..816H. doi:10.1038/nclimate1911. ISSN 1758-6798.
  5. ↑ "How climate change is making record-breaking floods the new normal". United Nations Environmental Program. 3 March 2020.
  6. ↑ Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000) Flood Archived 2007-08-24 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved on 2009-01-09
  7. ↑ "WHO | Flooding and communicable diseases fact sheet". WHO. Archived from the original on December 31, 2004. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
  8. ↑ Neumann, Barbara; Vafeidis, Athanasios T.; Zimmermann, Juliane; Nicholls, Robert J. (2015-03-11). "Future Coastal Population Growth and Exposure to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding - A Global Assessment". PLOS ONE (in Turanci). 10 (3). Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1018571N. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118571. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4367969. PMID 25760037. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  9. 1 2 "Flood Risk Management in Canada | Research report". Geneva Association (in Turanci). 2020-11-24. Retrieved 2021-10-29.
  10. 1 2 Dieperink, C.; Hegger, D. L. T.; Bakker, M. H. N.; Kundzewicz, Z. W.; Green, C.; Driessen, P. P. J. (2016-10-01). "Recurrent Governance Challenges in the Implementation and Alignment of Flood Risk Management Strategies: a Review". Water Resources Management (in Turanci). 30 (13): 4467–4481. Bibcode:2016WatRM..30.4467D. doi:10.1007/s11269-016-1491-7. ISSN 1573-1650. S2CID 54676896.
  11. ↑ Jones, Myrtle (2000). "Ground-water flooding in glacial terrain of southern Puget Sound, Washington". Fact Sheet. doi:10.3133/fs11100. Retrieved 2015-07-23.
  12. ↑ "Red River of the North State Water Trail". Minnesota DNR. Accessed 8 September 2024
  13. ↑ Hjalmarson, Hjalmar W. (December 1984). "Flash Flood in Tanque Verde Creek, Tucson, Arizona". Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. 110 (12): 1841–1852. Bibcode:1984JHydE.110.1841H. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1984)110:12(1841).
  14. ↑ "Storm Surge Overview". noaa.gov. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  15. ↑ "Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood". www.climatecentral.org (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
  16. ↑ "Army Corps starts to blow up levee, flood 130,000 acres in Missouri". CNN. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
  17. ↑ "Text Book of Fortification and Military Engineering: For Use at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, Volume 1". Google Books. H.M. Stationery Office. 1878. p. 50. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
  18. ↑ Oosthoek, K.J. "The watery ally: military inundations in Dutch history (podcast)". Environmental History Resources. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
  19. ↑ Tiegs, R. "Military Inundations during the Dutch Wars of Independence". Brief History of Military Inundations during the Dutch Wars of Independence. Archived from the original on May 24, 2018. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
  20. ↑ Vandenbohed, Alexander (2016). "The hydrogeology of the military inundation at the 1914–1918 Yser front (Belgium)". Hydrogeology Journal. 24 (2): 521–534. Bibcode:2016HydJ...24..521V. doi:10.1007/s10040-015-1344-0. S2CID 131534974.
  21. ↑ Tiegs, R. (13 April 2017). "The Past Comes Flooding Back: The War That Almost Sank Holland". NICHE. Network in Canadian History & Environment. Nouvelle initiative Canadienne en histoire de l'environnement. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
  22. ↑ "Battle of the Yser". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  23. ↑ Basic Biology (2016). "Wetlands".
  24. ↑ "Flood Control", MSN Encarta, 2008 (see below: Flood control#Further reading).
  25. ↑ Babbitt, Harold E. & Doland, James J., Water Supply Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1949
  26. ↑ Simon, Andrew L., Basic Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, 1981, ISBN 0-471-07965-0
  27. 1 2 Simon, Andrew L., Practical Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, 1981, ISBN 0-471-05381-3
  28. ↑ Urquhart, Leonard Church, Civil Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959
  29. ↑ "What is high tide flooding?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Ocean Service. US Department of Commerce. Archived from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
  30. ↑ "2022 Sea Level Rise Technical Report". National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). February 2022. Archived from the original on November 29, 2022.
  31. ↑ Abbett, Robert W., American Civil Engineering Practice, John Wiley & Sons, 1956
  32. ↑ United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Design of Small Dams, United States Government Printing Office, 1973
  33. ↑ Brown, Richard; Chanson, Hubert; McIntosh, Dave; Madhani, Jay (2011). Turbulent Velocity and Suspended Sediment Concentration Measurements in an Urban Environment of the Brisbane River Flood Plain at Gardens Point on 12–13 January 2011. Hydraulic Model Report No. CH83/11. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-74272-027-2.
  34. ↑ Chanson, H.; Brown, R.; McIntosh, D. (26 June 2014). "Human body stability in floodwaters: The 2011 flood in Brisbane CBD". In L. Toombes (ed.). Hydraulic structures and society - Engineering challenges and extremes (PDF). Brisbane, Australia: Proceedings of the 5th IAHR International Symposium on Hydraulic Structures (ISHS2014). pp. 1–9. doi:10.14264/uql.2014.48. ISBN 978-1-74272-115-6.
  35. 1 2 3 SCHANZE, JOCHEN (2006). "Flood Risk Management – A Basic Framework". In Schanze, Jochen; Zeman, Evzen; Marsalek, Jiri (eds.). Flood Risk Management: Hazards, Vulnerability and Mitigation Measures. NATO Science Series (in Turanci). 67. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–20. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4598-1_1. ISBN 978-1-4020-4598-1.
  36. ↑ Li, Zhi; Gorelick, Steven M (2025). "Societal and environmental interconnections: future directions for flood inundation models". Environmental Research Letters. 20 (12): 123004. Bibcode:2025ERL....20l3004L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ae21f4. ISSN 1748-9326.
  37. ↑ FAO (2025). The Impact of Disasters on Agriculture and Food Security 2025 (in English). FAO. doi:10.4060/cd7185en. ISBN 978-92-5-140180-4.CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  38. 1 2 Morrison, A.; Westbrook, C.J.; Noble, B.F. (2018). "A review of the flood risk management governance and resilience literature". Journal of Flood Risk Management. 11 (3): 291–304. Bibcode:2018JFRM...11..291M. doi:10.1111/jfr3.12315. S2CID 134055424.
  39. ↑ Society, National Geographic (2011-11-07). "flood". National Geographic Society (in Turanci). Archived from the original on May 21, 2016. Retrieved 2022-03-10.
  40. ↑ Stephen Bratkovich, Lisa Burban, et al., "Flooding and its Effects on Trees" Archived 2016-06-14 at the Wayback Machine, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, St. Paul, MN, September 1993
  41. ↑ Center for Neighborhood Technology, Chicago IL "The Prevalence and Cost of Urban Flooding", May 2013
  42. ↑ "Protecting Your Businesses", last updated March 2013
  43. ↑ "National Flood Insurance Program". FloodSmart.gov. Archived from the original on 2016-12-22. Retrieved 2015-07-06.
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Alderman, Katarzyna; Turner, Lyle R.; Tong, Shilu (June 2012). "Floods and human health: A systematic review" (PDF). Environment International. 47: 37–47. Bibcode:2012EnInt..47...37A. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2012.06.003. PMID 22750033.[dead link]
  45. ↑ Ahadzie, Divine Kwaku; Mensah, Henry; Simpeh, Eric (2022). "Impact of floods, recovery, and repairs of residential structures in Ghana: insights from homeowners". GeoJournal (in Turanci). 87 (4): 3133–3148. Bibcode:2022GeoJo..87.3133A. doi:10.1007/s10708-021-10425-2. ISSN 0343-2521. S2CID 234825689 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  46. ↑ Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Scientific Findings Resource Bank (IAQ-SFRB), "Health Risks or Dampness or Mold in Houses" Archived 2013-10-04 at the Wayback Machine
  47. ↑ Demain, Jeffrey G. (24 March 2018). "Climate Change and the Impact on Respiratory and Allergic Disease: 2018". Current Allergy and Asthma Reports (in Turanci). 18 (4). doi:10.1007/s11882-018-0777-7. ISSN 1534-6315. PMID 29574605. S2CID 4440737. Unknown parameter |article-number= ignored (help)
  48. ↑ Worst Natural Disasters In History Archived 2008-04-21 at the Wayback Machine (2012-06-07), Retrieved on 2012-06-12
  49. ↑ WMO/GWP Associated Programme on Flood Management, "Environmental Aspects of Integrated Flood Management" Archived 2015-07-13 at the Wayback Machine, 2007
  50. ↑ Extension of the Flood Pulse Concept[permanent dead link], Retrieved on 2012-06-12
  51. ↑ Samfuri:Usurped (2010-10-15), Retrieved on 2012-06-12
  52. ↑ Henry Petroski (2006). Levees and Other Raised Ground. 94. American Scientist. pp. 7–11.
  53. ↑ Eychaner, J.H. (2015) Lessons from a 500-year record of flood elevations, Association of State Floodplain Managers, Technical Report 7 Archived 2015-06-27 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2015-06-27
  54. ↑ Dyhouse, G., "Flood modelling Using HEC-RAS (First Edition)", Haestad Press, Waterbury (USA) 2003-26-41
  55. ↑ "Association of State Floodplain Managers". Retrieved 2015-07-13.
  56. ↑ "Best Practices Portfolio". Federal Emergency Management Agency. Retrieved 2015-07-06.
  57. ↑ "Storm/Flood and Hurricane/Typhoon Response". Emergency Response Resources. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 4 May 2023. Archived from the original on Feb 29, 2024.
  58. ↑ "Hydrologic Engineering Center Home Page". hec.usace.army.mil. Davis, CA: United States Army Corps of Engineers. Archived from the original on 2013-03-08.
  59. ↑ "TUFLOW | Flood, Urban Stormwater, Coastal and Water Quality computer modelling software". tuflow.com. Archived from the original on 2008-06-27.
  60. ↑ "WaterWatch". USGS. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
  61. ↑ "Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network". Retrieved 4 February 2013.
  62. ↑ "NOHRSC". 2 May 2012. Archived from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
  63. 1 2 Connelly, Brian A; Braatz, Dean T; Halquist, John B; Deweese, Michael M; Larson, Lee; Ingram, John J (1999). "Advanced Hydrologic Prediction System". Journal of Geophysical Research. 104 (D16): 19, 655. Bibcode:1999JGR...10419655C. doi:10.1029/1999JD900051.
  64. ↑ "Global Flood Monitoring". flood.umd.edu. Retrieved 2024-01-15.
  65. ↑ "Predicting Floods". science.nasa.gov. 20 July 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-22.
  66. ↑ "Flood Warnings". Environment Agency. 2013-04-30. Retrieved 2013-06-17.
  67. ↑ "Australia rainfall and river conditions". Bom.gov.au. Retrieved 2013-06-17.
  68. ↑ "FFG". Archived from the original on 4 March 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
  69. ↑ Schumann, Andreas H., ed. (2011). Flood Risk Assessment and Management (in Turanci). doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9917-4. ISBN 978-90-481-9916-7.
  70. 1 2 "Etymology of flood". Online Etymology Dictionary. Harper Douglas. Retrieved February 21, 2022.
  71. ↑ "FLOOD English Definition and Meaning". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on July 2, 2020. Retrieved 2022-02-21.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ambaliya&oldid=900437"