Bambanci tsakanin canje-canjen "Ƙungiya Marasa Rinjaye"

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Kalmar "ƙungiyar tsiraru" tana da amfani daban-daban, dangane da mahallin. Dangane da yadda ake amfani da shi na gama-gari, ana iya fahimtar kalmar ƴan tsiraru ta fuskar girman alƙaluma a cikin jama'a: watau rukuni a cikin al'umma da ke da mafi ƙanƙanta adadin mutane, ko ƙasa da rabi, "yan tsiraru ne". Yawanci ƙungiyar tsiraru ba ta da iko dangane da mafi rinjaye, kuma wannan yanayin yana ba da kansa ga aikace-aikace daban-daban na kalmar tsiraru.

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with short description]]

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The Kalmar "ƙungiyar tsiraru" tana da amfani daban-daban, dangane da mahallin. Dangane da yadda ake amfani da shi na gama-gari, ana iya fahimtar kalmar ƴan tsiraru ta fuskar girman alƙaluma a cikin jama'a: watau rukuni a cikin al'umma da ke da mafi ƙanƙanta adadin mutane, ko ƙasa da rabi, "yan tsiraru ne". Yawanci ƙungiyar tsiraru ba ta da iko dangane da mafi rinjaye, kuma wannan yanayin yana ba da kansa ga aikace-aikace daban-daban na kalmar tsiraru.

Dangane da ilimin zamantakewa, tattalin arziki, da siyasa, alƙaluman da ke ɗaukar mafi ƙanƙanta na yawan jama'a ba lallai ba ne a lakafta shi a matsayin "ƙananan" idan yana da rinjaye. A cikin mahallin ilimi, ana amfani da kalmomin “ƙananan” da “mafi rinjaye” ta fuskar tsarin iko. Misali, a Afirka ta Kudu, lokacin mulkin wariyar launin fata, Turawa farar fata sun rike kusan dukkanin karfin zamantakewa, tattalin arziki da siyasa a kan bakaken fata na Afirka. Don haka ne, bakar fata ‘yan Afirka su ne ‘yan tsirarun ‘yan tsiraru, duk kuwa da cewa sun zarce turawan farar fata a Afirka ta Kudu. Wannan shine dalilin da ya sa malamai sukan yi amfani da kalmar "ƙungiyar tsiraru" don komawa zuwa rukuni na mutanen da ke fuskantar ƙarancin dangi, idan aka kwatanta da membobin ƙungiyar jama'a masu rinjaye.

.^[1] To address this ambiguity, Harris Mylonas has proposed the term "non-core group", instead of "minority group", to refer to any aggregation of individuals that is perceived as an unassimilated ethnic group (on a linguistic, religious, physical, or ideological basis) by the ruling political elite of a country"^[2] and reserves the term 'minority' only for groups that have been granted minority rights by their state of residence.

Minority group membership is typically based on differences in observable characteristics or practices, such as: ethnicity (ethnic minority), race (racial minority), religion (religious minority), sexual orientation (sexual minority), or disability.^[3] The framework of intersectionality can be used to recognize that an individual may simultaneously hold membership in multiple minority groups (e.g. both a racial and religious minority).^[4] Likewise, individuals may also be part of a minority group in regard to some characteristics, but part of a dominant group in regard to others.^[5]

The term "minority group" often occurs within the discourse of civil rights and collective rights, as members of minority groups are prone to differential treatment in the countries and societies in which they live.^[6] Minority group members often face discrimination in multiple areas of social life, including housing, employment, healthcare, and education, among others.^[7]^[8] While discrimination may be committed by individuals, it may also occur through structural inequalities, in which rights and opportunities are not equally accessible to all.^[9] Those in favour of minority rights often pursue laws designed to protect minority groups from discrimination and afford members of the minority group equal social status and legal protections as held by members of the dominant group.^[10]

Bayani

Prior to the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), the term "minority" primarily referred to political parties in national legislatures, not ethnic, national, linguistic or religious groups. Such minority parties were powerless relative to the majority (or plurality) political group.^[11] The Paris Conference has been attributed with coining the concept of minority rights and bringing prominence to it.^[11] The League of Nations Minorities Commission defined minority in 1919 as "nationals belonging to racial, religious, or linguistic minorities".^[11] Protection of minority groups, such as through careful drawing of boundaries of states and proportional representation, was seen as integral in preventing causes of future wars.Samfuri:Source?

Sociological

Louis Wirth defined a minority group as "a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination".^[12] The definition includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively ascribed by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioral characteristics; it is also subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the basis of group identity or solidarity.^[13] Thus, minority group status is categorical: an individual who exhibits the physical or behavioral characteristics of a given minority group is accorded the status of that group and is subject to the same treatment as other members of that group.^[12]

Joe Feagin, states that a minority group has five characteristics: (1) suffering discrimination and subordination, (2) physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved by the dominant group, (3) a shared sense of collective identity and common burdens, (4) socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority status, and (5) tendency to marry within the group.^[14]

Criticisms

There is a controversy with the use of the word minority, as it has a generic and an academic usage.^[15] Common usage of the term indicates a statistical minority; however, academics refer to power differences among groups rather than differences in population size among groups.^[16]

The above criticism is based on the idea that a group can be considered a minority even if it includes such a large number of people that it is numerically not a minority in society.

Some sociologists have criticized the concept of "minority/majority", arguing this language excludes or neglects changing or unstable cultural identities, as well as cultural affiliations across national boundaries.^[17] As such, the term historically excluded groups (HEGs) is often similarly used to highlight the role of historical oppression and domination, and how this results in the under-representation of particular groups in various areas of social life.^[18]

Political

The term national minority is often used to discuss minority groups in international and national politics.^[19] All countries contain some degree of racial, ethnic, or linguistic diversity.^[20] In addition, minorities may also be immigrant, indigenous or landless nomadic communities.^[21] This often results in variations in language, culture, beliefs, practices, that set some groups apart from the dominant group. As these differences are usually perceived negatively, this results in loss of social and political power for members of minority groups.^[22]

There is no legal definition of national minorities in international law, though protection of minority groups is outlined by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. International criminal law can protect the rights of racial or ethnic minorities in several ways.^[23] The right to self-determination is a key issue. The Council of Europe regulates minority rights in the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.

In some places, subordinate ethnic groups may constitute a numerical majority, such as Blacks in South Africa under apartheid.^[24] In the United States, for example, non-Hispanic Whites constitute the majority (63.4%) and all other racial and ethnic groups (Mexican, African Americans, Asian Americans, American Indian, and Native Hawaiians) are classified as "minorities".^[25] If the non-Hispanic White population falls below 50% the group will only be the plurality, not the majority.

Examples

Racial and ethnic minorities

Racial minorities, sometimes referred to synonymously as people of color or non-white people, are minority groups that are discriminated against on the basis of race. Though definitions vary cross-culturally, modern racism is primarily based on the European and American classifications of race that developed during the Age of Exploration, as European countries sought to categorize the nations they colonized into pseudo-scientific phenotypical groups.^[26] In the United States's system, whiteness is at the top of a hierarchy that automatically classifies mixed-race individuals as their subordinate race.^[27]

Sometimes, racist policies explicitly codified pseudo-scientific definitions of race: such as the United States' one-drop rule and blood quantum laws, South Africa's apartheid, and Nazi Germany Nuremberg race laws. Other times, race has been a matter of self-identification, with de facto racist policies implemented.^[28] In addition to governmental policy, racism may persist as social prejudice and discrimination.

There are also social groups that are usually identified through ethnicity.^[26] Like race, ethnicity is largely determined hereditarily. However, it can also be influenced by factors such as adoption, cultural assimilation, religious conversion, and language shift. As race and ethnicity often overlap,^[29] many ethnic minorities are also racial minorities. However, this is not always the case, and some people are ethnic minorities while also being classified as white, such as some Jews, Roma, and Sámi. In some cases, their ethnic identities have been seen as negating their whiteness, in both inter- and intra-group identification.^[30]^[31]

In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, there is a preference to categorise people by ethnicity instead of race.^[32] Ethnicity encompasses a mix of "long shared cultural experiences, religious practices, traditions, ancestry, language, dialect or national origins".^[33] The United Kingdom considers everyone but white British people to be an ethnic minority, including other white Europeans such as White Irish people (excluding in Northern Ireland).^[32]

National minorities

A national minority is a social group within a state that differs from the majority and/or dominant population in terms of ethnicity, language, culture, or religion, but also it also tends to have a close link with a specific territory from which the minority social group originates.^[34]

Involuntary minorities

Also known as "castelike minorities", involuntary minorities are a term for people who were originally brought into any society against their will. In the United States, for instance, it includes but is not limited to Native Americans, Native Hawaiians, Puerto Ricans, African Americans,^[35] and in the 1800s, native-born Hispanics.^[36]

Voluntary minorities

Immigrants take on minority status in their new country, usually in hopes of a better future economically, educationally, and politically than in their homeland. Because of their focus on success, voluntary minorities are more likely to do better in school than other migrating minorities.^[35] Adapting to a very different culture and language makes difficulties in the early stages of life in the new country. Voluntary immigrants do not experience a sense of divided identity as much as involuntary minorities and are often rich in social capital because of their educational ambitions.^[37] Major immigrant groups in the United States include Mexicans, Central and South Americans, Cubans, Africans, East Asians, and South Asians.^[36]

Gender and sexuality minorities

Samfuri:Main

The term sexual minority is frequently used by public health researchers to recognize a wide variety of individuals who engage in same-sex sexual behavior, including those who do not identify under the LGBTQ+ umbrella. For example, men who have sex with men (MSM), but do not identify as gay. In addition, the term gender minorities can include many types of gender variant people, such as intersex people, transgender people, or non-binary individuals. However, the terms sexual and gender minority are often not preferred by LGBTQ+ people, as they represent clinical categories rather than individual identity.^[38]

Though lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) people have existed throughout human history, they represent a numerical and social minority. They experience numerous social inequalities stemming from their group membership as LGBTQ+ people. LGBTQ+ rights movements across many western countries led to the recognition of LGBTQ+ people as members of a minority group.^[38] These inequalities include social discrimination and isolation, unequal access to healthcare, employment, and housing, and experience negative mental and physical health outcomes due to these experiences.^[38]

Disabled people

Samfuri:Unreferenced section Leading up to the Human Rights Act 1998 in the UK, a rise in the awareness relating to how disabled people were being treated began. Many started to believe that they were being denied basic human rights. This act had a section that stated if authorities did not protect people with learning disabilities from others' actions, such as harm or neglect, then they could be prosecuted.^[39]

The disability rights movement has contributed to an understanding of disabled people as a minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvantaged by society, not just as people who are disadvantaged by their impairments. Advocates of disability rights emphasize the difference in physical or psychological functioning rather than inferiority. For example, some autistic people argue for acceptance of neurodiversity, much as opponents of racism argue for acceptance of ethnic diversity. The deaf community is often regarded as a linguistic and cultural minority rather than a group with disabilities, and some deaf people do not see themselves as having a disability at all. Rather, they are disadvantaged by technologies and social institutions designed to cater to the dominant group. (See the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.)

Religious minorities

Samfuri:Main People belonging to religious minorities have a faith that is different from that held by the majority. Most countries of the world have religious minorities. It is now widely accepted in the West that people should have the freedom to choose their religion,Samfuri:Source? including the right to convert from one religion to another, or not to have any religion (atheism and/or agnosticism). However, in many countries, this freedom is constricted. In Egypt, a new system of identity cards^[40] requires all citizens to state their religion—and the only choices are Islam, Christianity, or Judaism (See Egyptian identification card controversy). Another example is the case of decreasing population of minorities in Pakistan, where they are being forcefully converted or killed.^[41]^[42]

Women as a disadvantaged group

In most societies, numbers of men and women are roughly equal. Though women are not considered to be a minority,^[43] the status of women, as a subordinate group, has led to many social scientists to refer to them as a disadvantaged group.^[44] Though women's legal rights and status vary widely across countries, women often experience social inequalities, relative to men, in various societies.^[45] Women are sometimes denied access to education and access to the same opportunities as men, especially in under-developed countries.^[46]

Law and government

In the politics of some countries, a "minority" is an ethnic group recognized by law, and having specified rights. Speakers of a legally recognized minority language, for instance, might have the right to education or communication with the government in their mother tongue. Countries with special provisionsSamfuri:Which for minorities include Canada, China, Ethiopia, Germany, India, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Croatia, and the United Kingdom.^{[Ana bukatan hujja]}

The various minority groups in a country are often not given equal treatment. Some groups are too small or indistinct to obtain minority protections. For example, a member of a particularly small ethnic group might be forced to check "Other" on a checklist of different backgrounds and so might receive fewer privileges than a member of a more defined group.

Many contemporary governments prefer to assume the people they rule all belong to the same nationality rather than separate ones based on ethnicity. The United States asks for race and ethnicity on its official census forms, which thus breaks up and organizes its population into sub-groups, primarily racial rather than national. Spain does not divide its nationals by ethnic group or national minorities, although it does maintain an official notion of minority languages, that is one of the criteria for to determine a national minority, upon the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.

Some especially significant or powerful minorities receive comprehensive protection and political representation. For example, the former Yugoslav Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina recognizes the three constitutive nations, none of which constitutes a numerical majority (see nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina). However, other minorities such as Roma^[47] and Jews, are officially labelled "foreign" and are excluded from many of these protections. For example, they may be excluded from political positions, including the presidency.^[48]

There is debate over recognizing minority groups and their privileges. One view^[49] is that the application of special rights to minority groups may harm some countries, such as new states in Africa or Latin America not founded on the European nation-state model, since minority recognition may interfere with establishing a national identity. It may hamper the integration of the minority into mainstream society, perhaps leading to separatism or supremacism. In Canada, someSamfuri:Who feel that the failure of the dominant English-speaking majority to integrate French Canadians has provoked Quebec separatism.

Others assert that minorities require specific protections to ensure that they are not marginalized: for example, bilingual education may be needed to allow linguistic minorities to fully integrate into the school system and compete equally in society. In this view, rights for minorities strengthen the nation-building project, as members of minorities see their interests well served, and willingly accept the legitimacy of the nation and their integration (not assimilation) within it.^[50]

References

↑ Healey, Joseph F. (2 March 2018). Race, ethnicity, gender, & class : the sociology of group conflict and change. Stepnick, Andi; O'Brien, Eileen, 1972– (Eighth ed.). Thousand Oaks, California. ISBN 9781506346946. OCLC 1006532841.
↑ Mylonas, Harris (2012). The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. xx. ISBN 978-1107661998.
↑ Ritzer, George (15 January 2014). Essentials of sociology. Los Angeles. ISBN 9781483340173. OCLC 871004576.
↑ Hughes, Melanie (2011). "Intersectionality, Quotas, and Minority Women's Political Representation Worldwide". American Political Science Review. 3 (105): 604–620. doi:10.1017/S0003055411000293. S2CID 2592368.
↑ Laurie, Timothy; Khan, Rimi (2017), "The Concept of Minority for the Study of Culture", Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 31 (1): 3, doi:10.1080/10304312.2016.1264110, S2CID 152009904
↑ Johnson, Kevin. "The Struggle for Civil Rights: The Need for, and Impediments to, Political Coalitions among and within Minority Groups". Louisiana Law Review. 63: 759. Archived from the original on 15 February 2019. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
↑ Becker, Gary S. (1971). The economics of discrimination (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226041049. OCLC 658199810.
↑ Williams, David R. (1999). "Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health The Added Effects of Racism and Discrimination" (PDF). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (in Turanci). 896 (1): 173–188. Bibcode:1999NYASA.896..173W. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x. hdl:2027.42/71908. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 10681897. S2CID 26852165. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
↑ Verloo, Mieke (2006). "Multiple Inequalities, Intersectionality and the European Union". European Journal of Women's Studies (in Turanci). 13 (3): 211–228. doi:10.1177/1350506806065753. hdl:2066/46605. ISSN 1350-5068. S2CID 21752012. Archived from the original on 10 February 2019. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
↑ Skrentny, John David (2002). The minority rights revolution. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674043732. OCLC 431342257.
↑ ^11.0 ^11.1 ^11.2 Robson, Laura (2021). "Capitulations Redux: The Imperial Genealogy of the Post–World War I "Minority" Regimes". The American Historical Review. 126 (3): 978–1000. doi:10.1093/ahr/rhab358. ISSN 0002-8762.
↑ ^12.0 ^12.1 Wirth, L. (1945). "The Problem of Minority Groups". In Linton, Ralph (ed.). The Science of Man in the World Crisis. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 347. The political scientist and law professor, Gad Barzilai, has offered a theoretical definition of non-ruling communities that conceptualizes groups that do not rule and are excluded from resources of political power. Barzilai, G. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
↑ Wagley, Charles; Harris, Marvin (1958). Minorities in the new world: six case studies (in Turanci). New York: Columbia University Press.
↑ Joe R. Feagin (1984). Racial and Ethnic Relations (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-13-750125-0.
↑ Cultural Diversity Glossary of Terms. Diversity Training University International Publications Division. 2008. p. 4.
↑ Barzilai, Gad (2010). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472024001. Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
↑ Laurie, Timothy; Khan, Rimi (2017), "The Concept of Minority for the Study of Culture", Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 31 (1): 1–12, doi:10.1080/10304312.2016.1264110, S2CID 152009904
↑ Konrad, Alison M.; Linnehan, Frank (1999), "Handbook of Gender & Work Handbook of gender & work", Handbook of Gender & Work, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 429–452, doi:10.4135/9781452231365.n22, ISBN 9780761913559
↑ Daniel Šmihula (2008). "National Minorities in the Law of the EC/EU" (PDF). Romanian Journal of European Affairs. 8 (3): 51–81. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 August 2011.
↑ "The most (and least) culturally diverse countries in the world". Pew Research Center (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 11 August 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
↑ Protsyk, Oleh (2010). The representation of minorities and indigenous peoples in parliament : a global overview. Inter-parliamentary Union.627. Geneva: Inter-parliamentary Union. OCLC 754152959.
↑ Verkuyten, Maykel (2005). "Ethnic Group Identification and Group Evaluation Among Minority and Majority Groups: Testing the Multiculturalism Hypothesis". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (in Turanci). 88 (1): 121–138. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.595.7633. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.121. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 15631579.
↑ Lyal S. Sunga (2004). International Criminal Law: Protection of Minority Rights, Beyond a One-Dimensional State: An Emerging Right to Autonomy? ed. Zelim Skurbaty. (2004) 255–275.
↑ du Toit, Pierre; Theron, François (1988). "Ethnic and minority groups, and constitutional change in South Africa". Journal of Contemporary African Studies (in Turanci). 7 (1–2): 133–147. doi:10.1080/02589008808729481. ISSN 0258-9001.
↑ "U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States". Census Bureau QuickFacts (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
↑ ^26.0 ^26.1 "Historical Foundations of Race".
↑ "The Evolution Of Whiteness In The United States". Forbes.
↑ "Race, Ethnicity, and Politics". In lieu of de jure segregation, various manifestations of de facto segregation persist to this day ... In contrast to de jure segregation, de facto segregation occurs as a result of social practices that, although not codified in law, have a similar outcome in terms of maintaining the separation of a minority group from the majority group.
↑ "What's the difference between race and ethnicity?". Live Science. 3 November 2022.
↑ "We're Jews, We're Not White, We Define Ourselves". 27 March 2019.
↑ "My mother is Native American, but I look white. My identity is more than my DNA". The Washington Post.
↑ ^32.0 ^32.1 "Writing about ethnicity". www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk (in Turanci). December 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
↑ "A guide to race and ethnicity terminology and language". www.lawsociety.org.uk (in Turanci). The Law Society. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
↑ "United Nations Guide for Minorities". www.ohchr.org/en/ohchr_homepage.
↑ ^35.0 ^35.1 Ogbu, John U. "Understanding Cultural Diversity and Learning" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2015.
↑ ^36.0 ^36.1 Ogbu and Simons (1998). "Voluntary and Involuntary Minorities: A Cultural-Ecological Theory of School Performance with Some Implications for Education" (PDF). Anthropology and Education Quarterly. 29 (2): 155–188. doi:10.1525/aeq.1998.29.2.155. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2016.
↑ Valenzuela, Angela. Subtractive Schooling. pp. 116–118.
↑ ^38.0 ^38.1 ^38.2 Mayer, Kenneth H.; Bradford, Judith B.; Makadon, Harvey J.; Stall, Ron; Goldhammer, Hilary; Landers, Stewart (2008). "Sexual and Gender Minority Health: What We Know and What Needs to Be Done". American Journal of Public Health (in Turanci). 98 (6): 989–995. doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.127811. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 2377288. PMID 18445789.
↑ Clements, Luke; Read, Janet (2003). Disabled people and European human rights: A review of the implications of the 1998 Human Rights Act for disabled children and adults in the UK (1 ed.). Bristol University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1t8964p. JSTOR j.ctt1t8964p. S2CID 246084235 Check |s2cid= value (help).
↑ See "The Situation of the Bahá'í Community of Egypt" and "Religion Today: Bahais' struggle for recognition reveals a less tolerant face of Egypt", Bahai.org Archived 2006-10-01 at the Wayback Machine, DWB.sacbee.com Archived 2007-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
↑ "Another Hindu girl abducted, forcibly converted to Islam in Pakistan's Sindh; family stages protest". www.timesnownews.com (in Turanci). 24 September 2019. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
↑ "Hindu medical student found dead in Pakistan hostel, brother alleges foul play". Hindustan Times (in Turanci). 17 September 2019. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
↑ "Definition of Minority". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
↑ Hacker, Helen Mayer (1951). "Women as a Minority Group". Social Forces. 30 (1): 60–69. doi:10.2307/2571742. JSTOR 2571742.
↑ Shachar, Ayelet (2001). Multicultural jurisdictions : cultural differences and women's rights. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0511040801. OCLC 56216656.
↑ Women, U. N. (2018). Annual Report 2017–2018.
↑ "Political recognition of Roma People in Spain. [Social Impact]. WORKALÓ. The creation of new occupational patterns for cultural minorities: the Gypsy Case (2001–2004). Framework Programme 5 (FP5)". SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017.
↑ Opinion of the Council of Europe's Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, in particular paragraphs 37–43 Archived 2007-06-16 at the Wayback Machine
↑ For example, J.A. Lindgren-Alves, member of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, speaking at the Committee's 67th Session (Summary Record of the 1724th Meeting, 23 August 2005, CERD/C/SR.1724)
↑ See Henrard, K. (2000). Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights and the Right to Self-Determination. Martinus Nijhoff. pp. 218–224. ISBN 978-9041113597. Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.

External links

Union of Minority Shareholders
ECMI – European Centre for Minority Issues
Minority language tool
What is a Minority Group? Archived 9 ga Faburairu, 2006 at the Wayback Machine definitions from Dayton Law School.
From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated
Minorities at Risk project at the University of Maryland
MINELRES – Minority Electronic Resources
European Academy Bozen/Bolzano (EURAC)
Eurominority – Stateless and national minorities portal
State of the World's Minorities, an annual report by Minority Rights Group International
American Psychological Association's Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs
The Protection of Minorities in Europe – Minorities ABC

Samfuri:Ethnicity

In terms of sociology, economics, and politics, a demographic that takes up the smallest fraction of the population is not necessarily labelled the "minority" if it wields dominant power. In the academic context, the terms "minority" and "majority" are used in terms of hierarchical power structures. For example, in South Africa, during Apartheid, white Europeans held virtually all social, economic, and political power over black Africans. For this reason, black Africans are the "minority group", despite the fact that they outnumber white Europeans in South Africa. This is why academics more frequently use the term "minority group" to refer to a category of people that experience relative disadvantage, as compared to members of a dominant social group.^[1] To address this ambiguity, Harris Mylonas has proposed the term "non-core group", instead of "minority group", to refer to any aggregation of individuals that is perceived as an unassimilated ethnic group (on a linguistic, religious, physical, or ideological basis) by the ruling political elite of a country"^[2] and reserves the term 'minority' only for groups that have been granted minority rights by their state of residence.

Minority group membership is typically based on differences in observable characteristics or practices, such as: ethnicity (ethnic minority), race (racial minority), religion (religious minority), sexual orientation (sexual minority), or disability.^[3] The framework of intersectionality can be used to recognize that an individual may simultaneously hold membership in multiple minority groups (e.g. both a racial and religious minority).^[4] Likewise, individuals may also be part of a minority group in regard to some characteristics, but part of a dominant group in regard to others.^[5]

The term "minority group" often occurs within the discourse of civil rights and collective rights, as members of minority groups are prone to differential treatment in the countries and societies in which they live.^[6] Minority group members often face discrimination in multiple areas of social life, including housing, employment, healthcare, and education, among others.^[7]^[8] While discrimination may be committed by individuals, it may also occur through structural inequalities, in which rights and opportunities are not equally accessible to all.^[9] Those in favour of minority rights often pursue laws designed to protect minority groups from discrimination and afford members of the minority group equal social status and legal protections as held by members of the dominant group.^[10]

Definitions

Prior to the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), the term "minority" primarily referred to political parties in national legislatures, not ethnic, national, linguistic or religious groups. Such minority parties were powerless relative to the majority (or plurality) political group.^[11] The Paris Conference has been attributed with coining the concept of minority rights and bringing prominence to it.^[11] The League of Nations Minorities Commission defined minority in 1919 as "nationals belonging to racial, religious, or linguistic minorities".^[11] Protection of minority groups, such as through careful drawing of boundaries of states and proportional representation, was seen as integral in preventing causes of future wars.Samfuri:Source?

Sociological

Louis Wirth defined a minority group as "a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination".^[12] The definition includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively ascribed by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioral characteristics; it is also subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the basis of group identity or solidarity.^[13] Thus, minority group status is categorical: an individual who exhibits the physical or behavioral characteristics of a given minority group is accorded the status of that group and is subject to the same treatment as other members of that group.^[12]

Joe Feagin, states that a minority group has five characteristics: (1) suffering discrimination and subordination, (2) physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved by the dominant group, (3) a shared sense of collective identity and common burdens, (4) socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority status, and (5) tendency to marry within the group.^[14]

Criticisms

There is a controversy with the use of the word minority, as it has a generic and an academic usage.^[15] Common usage of the term indicates a statistical minority; however, academics refer to power differences among groups rather than differences in population size among groups.^[16]

The above criticism is based on the idea that a group can be considered a minority even if it includes such a large number of people that it is numerically not a minority in society.

Some sociologists have criticized the concept of "minority/majority", arguing this language excludes or neglects changing or unstable cultural identities, as well as cultural affiliations across national boundaries.^[17] As such, the term historically excluded groups (HEGs) is often similarly used to highlight the role of historical oppression and domination, and how this results in the under-representation of particular groups in various areas of social life.^[18]

Political

The term national minority is often used to discuss minority groups in international and national politics.^[19] All countries contain some degree of racial, ethnic, or linguistic diversity.^[20] In addition, minorities may also be immigrant, indigenous or landless nomadic communities.^[21] This often results in variations in language, culture, beliefs, practices, that set some groups apart from the dominant group. As these differences are usually perceived negatively, this results in loss of social and political power for members of minority groups.^[22]

There is no legal definition of national minorities in international law, though protection of minority groups is outlined by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. International criminal law can protect the rights of racial or ethnic minorities in several ways.^[23] The right to self-determination is a key issue. The Council of Europe regulates minority rights in the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.

In some places, subordinate ethnic groups may constitute a numerical majority, such as Blacks in South Africa under apartheid.^[24] In the United States, for example, non-Hispanic Whites constitute the majority (63.4%) and all other racial and ethnic groups (Mexican, African Americans, Asian Americans, American Indian, and Native Hawaiians) are classified as "minorities".^[25] If the non-Hispanic White population falls below 50% the group will only be the plurality, not the majority.

Examples

Racial and ethnic minorities

Racial minorities, sometimes referred to synonymously as people of color or non-white people, are minority groups that are discriminated against on the basis of race. Though definitions vary cross-culturally, modern racism is primarily based on the European and American classifications of race that developed during the Age of Exploration, as European countries sought to categorize the nations they colonized into pseudo-scientific phenotypical groups.^[26] In the United States's system, whiteness is at the top of a hierarchy that automatically classifies mixed-race individuals as their subordinate race.^[27]

Sometimes, racist policies explicitly codified pseudo-scientific definitions of race: such as the United States' one-drop rule and blood quantum laws, South Africa's apartheid, and Nazi Germany Nuremberg race laws. Other times, race has been a matter of self-identification, with de facto racist policies implemented.^[28] In addition to governmental policy, racism may persist as social prejudice and discrimination.

There are also social groups that are usually identified through ethnicity.^[26] Like race, ethnicity is largely determined hereditarily. However, it can also be influenced by factors such as adoption, cultural assimilation, religious conversion, and language shift. As race and ethnicity often overlap,^[29] many ethnic minorities are also racial minorities. However, this is not always the case, and some people are ethnic minorities while also being classified as white, such as some Jews, Roma, and Sámi. In some cases, their ethnic identities have been seen as negating their whiteness, in both inter- and intra-group identification.^[30]^[31]

In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, there is a preference to categorise people by ethnicity instead of race.^[32] Ethnicity encompasses a mix of "long shared cultural experiences, religious practices, traditions, ancestry, language, dialect or national origins".^[33] The United Kingdom considers everyone but white British people to be an ethnic minority, including other white Europeans such as White Irish people (excluding in Northern Ireland).^[32]

National minorities

A national minority is a social group within a state that differs from the majority and/or dominant population in terms of ethnicity, language, culture, or religion, but also it also tends to have a close link with a specific territory from which the minority social group originates.^[34]

Involuntary minorities

Also known as "castelike minorities", involuntary minorities are a term for people who were originally brought into any society against their will. In the United States, for instance, it includes but is not limited to Native Americans, Native Hawaiians, Puerto Ricans, African Americans,^[35] and in the 1800s, native-born Hispanics.^[36]

Voluntary minorities

Immigrants take on minority status in their new country, usually in hopes of a better future economically, educationally, and politically than in their homeland. Because of their focus on success, voluntary minorities are more likely to do better in school than other migrating minorities.^[35] Adapting to a very different culture and language makes difficulties in the early stages of life in the new country. Voluntary immigrants do not experience a sense of divided identity as much as involuntary minorities and are often rich in social capital because of their educational ambitions.^[37] Major immigrant groups in the United States include Mexicans, Central and South Americans, Cubans, Africans, East Asians, and South Asians.^[36]

Gender and sexuality minorities

Samfuri:Main

The term sexual minority is frequently used by public health researchers to recognize a wide variety of individuals who engage in same-sex sexual behavior, including those who do not identify under the LGBTQ+ umbrella. For example, men who have sex with men (MSM), but do not identify as gay. In addition, the term gender minorities can include many types of gender variant people, such as intersex people, transgender people, or non-binary individuals. However, the terms sexual and gender minority are often not preferred by LGBTQ+ people, as they represent clinical categories rather than individual identity.^[38]

Though lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) people have existed throughout human history, they represent a numerical and social minority. They experience numerous social inequalities stemming from their group membership as LGBTQ+ people. LGBTQ+ rights movements across many western countries led to the recognition of LGBTQ+ people as members of a minority group.^[38] These inequalities include social discrimination and isolation, unequal access to healthcare, employment, and housing, and experience negative mental and physical health outcomes due to these experiences.^[38]

Disabled people

Samfuri:Unreferenced section Leading up to the Human Rights Act 1998 in the UK, a rise in the awareness relating to how disabled people were being treated began. Many started to believe that they were being denied basic human rights. This act had a section that stated if authorities did not protect people with learning disabilities from others' actions, such as harm or neglect, then they could be prosecuted.^[39]

The disability rights movement has contributed to an understanding of disabled people as a minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvantaged by society, not just as people who are disadvantaged by their impairments. Advocates of disability rights emphasize the difference in physical or psychological functioning rather than inferiority. For example, some autistic people argue for acceptance of neurodiversity, much as opponents of racism argue for acceptance of ethnic diversity. The deaf community is often regarded as a linguistic and cultural minority rather than a group with disabilities, and some deaf people do not see themselves as having a disability at all. Rather, they are disadvantaged by technologies and social institutions designed to cater to the dominant group. (See the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.)

Religious minorities

Samfuri:Main People belonging to religious minorities have a faith that is different from that held by the majority. Most countries of the world have religious minorities. It is now widely accepted in the West that people should have the freedom to choose their religion,Samfuri:Source? including the right to convert from one religion to another, or not to have any religion (atheism and/or agnosticism). However, in many countries, this freedom is constricted. In Egypt, a new system of identity cards^[40] requires all citizens to state their religion—and the only choices are Islam, Christianity, or Judaism (See Egyptian identification card controversy). Another example is the case of decreasing population of minorities in Pakistan, where they are being forcefully converted or killed.^[41]^[42]

Women as a disadvantaged group

In most societies, numbers of men and women are roughly equal. Though women are not considered to be a minority,^[43] the status of women, as a subordinate group, has led to many social scientists to refer to them as a disadvantaged group.^[44] Though women's legal rights and status vary widely across countries, women often experience social inequalities, relative to men, in various societies.^[45] Women are sometimes denied access to education and access to the same opportunities as men, especially in under-developed countries.^[46]

Law and government

In the politics of some countries, a "minority" is an ethnic group recognized by law, and having specified rights. Speakers of a legally recognized minority language, for instance, might have the right to education or communication with the government in their mother tongue. Countries with special provisionsSamfuri:Which for minorities include Canada, China, Ethiopia, Germany, India, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Croatia, and the United Kingdom.^{[Ana bukatan hujja]}

The various minority groups in a country are often not given equal treatment. Some groups are too small or indistinct to obtain minority protections. For example, a member of a particularly small ethnic group might be forced to check "Other" on a checklist of different backgrounds and so might receive fewer privileges than a member of a more defined group.

Many contemporary governments prefer to assume the people they rule all belong to the same nationality rather than separate ones based on ethnicity. The United States asks for race and ethnicity on its official census forms, which thus breaks up and organizes its population into sub-groups, primarily racial rather than national. Spain does not divide its nationals by ethnic group or national minorities, although it does maintain an official notion of minority languages, that is one of the criteria for to determine a national minority, upon the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.

Some especially significant or powerful minorities receive comprehensive protection and political representation. For example, the former Yugoslav Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina recognizes the three constitutive nations, none of which constitutes a numerical majority (see nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina). However, other minorities such as Roma^[47] and Jews, are officially labelled "foreign" and are excluded from many of these protections. For example, they may be excluded from political positions, including the presidency.^[48]

There is debate over recognizing minority groups and their privileges. One view^[49] is that the application of special rights to minority groups may harm some countries, such as new states in Africa or Latin America not founded on the European nation-state model, since minority recognition may interfere with establishing a national identity. It may hamper the integration of the minority into mainstream society, perhaps leading to separatism or supremacism. In Canada, someSamfuri:Who feel that the failure of the dominant English-speaking majority to integrate French Canadians has provoked Quebec separatism.

Others assert that minorities require specific protections to ensure that they are not marginalized: for example, bilingual education may be needed to allow linguistic minorities to fully integrate into the school system and compete equally in society. In this view, rights for minorities strengthen the nation-building project, as members of minorities see their interests well served, and willingly accept the legitimacy of the nation and their integration (not assimilation) within it.^[50]

References

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External links

Union of Minority Shareholders
ECMI – European Centre for Minority Issues
Minority language tool
What is a Minority Group? Archived 9 ga Faburairu, 2006 at the Wayback Machine definitions from Dayton Law School.
From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated
Minorities at Risk project at the University of Maryland
MINELRES – Minority Electronic Resources
European Academy Bozen/Bolzano (EURAC)
Eurominority – Stateless and national minorities portal
State of the World's Minorities, an annual report by Minority Rights Group International
American Psychological Association's Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs
The Protection of Minorities in Europe – Minorities ABC

Samfuri:Ethnicity 'Rubutu mai gwaɓi'

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[Unnamed_36-20240416095643-47] "Political recognition of Roma People in Spain. [Social Impact]. WORKALÓ. The creation of new occupational patterns for cultural minorities: the Gypsy Case (2001–2004). Framework Programme 5 (FP5)". SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017.

[Unnamed_37-20240416095643-48] Opinion of the Council of Europe's Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, in particular paragraphs 37–43 Archived 2007-06-16 at the Wayback Machine

[Unnamed_38-20240416095643-49] For example, J.A. Lindgren-Alves, member of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, speaking at the Committee's 67th Session (Summary Record of the 1724th Meeting, 23 August 2005, CERD/C/SR.1724)

[Unnamed_39-20240416095643-50] See Henrard, K. (2000). Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights and the Right to Self-Determination. Martinus Nijhoff. pp. 218–224. ISBN 978-9041113597. Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.

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@@ Layi na 13 / Layi na 13 @@
 Dangane da ilimin zamantakewa, tattalin arziki, da siyasa, alƙaluman da ke ɗaukar mafi ƙanƙanta na yawan jama'a ba lallai ba ne a lakafta shi a matsayin "ƙananan" idan yana da rinjaye. A cikin mahallin ilimi, ana amfani da kalmomin “ƙananan” da “mafi rinjaye” ta fuskar tsarin iko. Misali, a Afirka ta Kudu, lokacin mulkin wariyar launin fata, Turawa farar fata sun rike kusan dukkanin karfin zamantakewa, tattalin arziki da siyasa a kan bakaken fata na Afirka. Don haka ne, bakar fata ‘yan Afirka su ne ‘yan tsirarun ‘yan tsiraru, duk kuwa da cewa sun zarce turawan farar fata a Afirka ta Kudu. Wannan shine dalilin da ya sa malamai sukan yi amfani da kalmar "ƙungiyar tsiraru" don komawa zuwa rukuni na mutanen da ke fuskantar ƙarancin dangi, idan aka kwatanta da membobin ƙungiyar jama'a masu rinjaye.
-.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Race, ethnicity, gender, & class : the sociology of group conflict and change|author=Healey, Joseph F.|others=Stepnick, Andi; O'Brien, Eileen, 1972–|isbn=9781506346946|edition= Eighth |location=Thousand Oaks, California|oclc=1006532841|date=2018-03-02}}</ref> To address this ambiguity, [[Harris Mylonas]] has proposed the term "non-core group", instead of "minority group", to refer to any aggregation of individuals that is perceived as an unassimilated ethnic group (on a linguistic, religious, physical, or ideological basis) by the ruling political elite of a country"<ref>{{cite book |last=Mylonas |first=Harris |title=The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1107661998 |page=xx| url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/politics-nation-building-making-co-nationals-refugees-and-minorities}}</ref> and reserves the term 'minority' only for groups that have been granted minority rights by their state of residence.
+.<ref name="Unnamed-20240416095643">{{Cite book|title=Race, ethnicity, gender, & class : the sociology of group conflict and change|author=Healey, Joseph F.|others=Stepnick, Andi; O'Brien, Eileen, 1972–|isbn=9781506346946|edition= Eighth |location=Thousand Oaks, California|oclc=1006532841|date=2018-03-02}}</ref> To address this ambiguity, [[Harris Mylonas]] has proposed the term "non-core group", instead of "minority group", to refer to any aggregation of individuals that is perceived as an unassimilated ethnic group (on a linguistic, religious, physical, or ideological basis) by the ruling political elite of a country"<ref name="Unnamed_2-20240416095643">{{cite book |last=Mylonas |first=Harris |title=The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1107661998 |page=xx| url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/politics-nation-building-making-co-nationals-refugees-and-minorities}}</ref> and reserves the term 'minority' only for groups that have been granted minority rights by their state of residence.
-Minority group membership is typically based on differences in observable characteristics or practices, such as: [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]] (ethnic minority), [[Race (human categorization)|race]] (racial minority), religion ([[Minority religion|religious minority]]), sexual orientation ([[sexual minority]]), or [[disability]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Essentials of sociology|first=George|last=Ritzer|isbn=9781483340173|location=Los Angeles|oclc=871004576|date=2014-01-15}}</ref> The framework of [[intersectionality]] can be used to recognize that an individual may simultaneously hold membership in multiple minority groups (e.g. both a racial and religious minority).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Melanie |title=Intersectionality, Quotas, and Minority Women's Political Representation Worldwide |journal=American Political Science Review |date=2011 |volume=3 |issue=105 |pages=604–620 |doi=10.1017/S0003055411000293|s2cid=2592368 }}</ref> Likewise, individuals may also be part of a minority group in regard to some characteristics, but part of a dominant group in regard to others.<ref name=":4">{{Citation|last1=Laurie|first1=Timothy|title=The Concept of Minority for the Study of Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/31725889|journal=Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies|volume=31|issue=1|pages=3|year=2017|last2=Khan|first2=Rimi|doi=10.1080/10304312.2016.1264110|s2cid=152009904}}</ref>
+Minority group membership is typically based on differences in observable characteristics or practices, such as: [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]] (ethnic minority), [[Race (human categorization)|race]] (racial minority), religion ([[Minority religion|religious minority]]), sexual orientation ([[sexual minority]]), or [[disability]].<ref name="Unnamed_3-20240416095643">{{Cite book|title=Essentials of sociology|first=George|last=Ritzer|isbn=9781483340173|location=Los Angeles|oclc=871004576|date=2014-01-15}}</ref> The framework of [[intersectionality]] can be used to recognize that an individual may simultaneously hold membership in multiple minority groups (e.g. both a racial and religious minority).<ref name="Unnamed_4-20240416095643">{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Melanie |title=Intersectionality, Quotas, and Minority Women's Political Representation Worldwide |journal=American Political Science Review |date=2011 |volume=3 |issue=105 |pages=604–620 |doi=10.1017/S0003055411000293|s2cid=2592368 }}</ref> Likewise, individuals may also be part of a minority group in regard to some characteristics, but part of a dominant group in regard to others.<ref name=":4">{{Citation|last1=Laurie|first1=Timothy|title=The Concept of Minority for the Study of Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/31725889|journal=Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies|volume=31|issue=1|pages=3|year=2017|last2=Khan|first2=Rimi|doi=10.1080/10304312.2016.1264110|s2cid=152009904}}</ref>
-The term "minority group" often occurs within the [[discourse]] of [[civil rights]] and [[collective rights]], as members of minority groups are prone to differential treatment in the countries and societies in which they live.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/louilr63&div=34&id=&page=|title=The Struggle for Civil Rights: The Need for, and Impediments to, Political Coalitions among and within Minority Groups|last=Johnson|first=Kevin|journal=Louisiana Law Review|volume=63|page=759|access-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215102813/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals%2Flouilr63&div=34&id=&page=|archive-date=2019-02-15|url-status=live}}</ref> Minority group members often face [[discrimination]] in multiple areas of social life, including housing, employment, healthcare, and education, among others.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The economics of discrimination|last=Becker|first=Gary S.|date=1971|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226041049|edition= 2nd|location=Chicago|oclc=658199810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=David R.|date=1999|title=Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health The Added Effects of Racism and Discrimination|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=896|issue=1|pages=173–188|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x|pmid=10681897|bibcode=1999NYASA.896..173W|issn=0077-8923|hdl=2027.42/71908|s2cid=26852165|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/71908/1/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x.pdf|access-date=2019-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126203618/http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/71908/1/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x.pdf|archive-date=2012-01-26|url-status=live|hdl-access=free}}</ref>  While discrimination may be committed by individuals, it may also occur through [[Structural inequality|structural inequalities]], in which rights and opportunities are not equally accessible to all.<ref>{{Cite journal|author-link1=Mieke Verloo|last=Verloo|first=Mieke|date=2006|title=Multiple Inequalities, Intersectionality and the European Union|journal=European Journal of Women's Studies|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=211–228|doi=10.1177/1350506806065753|s2cid=21752012|issn=1350-5068|url=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/22512|access-date=2018-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210152558/https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/22512|archive-date=2019-02-10|url-status=live|hdl=2066/46605|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Those in favour of [[minority rights]] often pursue laws designed to protect minority groups from discrimination and afford members of the minority group equal social status and legal protections as held by members of the dominant group.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The minority rights revolution|last=Skrentny|first=John David|date=2002|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674043732|location=Cambridge, Mass.|oclc=431342257}}</ref>
+The term "minority group" often occurs within the [[discourse]] of [[civil rights]] and [[collective rights]], as members of minority groups are prone to differential treatment in the countries and societies in which they live.<ref name="Unnamed_5-20240416095643">{{Cite journal|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/louilr63&div=34&id=&page=|title=The Struggle for Civil Rights: The Need for, and Impediments to, Political Coalitions among and within Minority Groups|last=Johnson|first=Kevin|journal=Louisiana Law Review|volume=63|page=759|access-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215102813/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals%2Flouilr63&div=34&id=&page=|archive-date=2019-02-15|url-status=live}}</ref> Minority group members often face [[discrimination]] in multiple areas of social life, including housing, employment, healthcare, and education, among others.<ref name="Unnamed_6-20240416095643">{{Cite book|title=The economics of discrimination|last=Becker|first=Gary S.|date=1971|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226041049|edition= 2nd|location=Chicago|oclc=658199810}}</ref><ref name="Unnamed_7-20240416095643">{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=David R.|date=1999|title=Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health The Added Effects of Racism and Discrimination|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=896|issue=1|pages=173–188|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x|pmid=10681897|bibcode=1999NYASA.896..173W|issn=0077-8923|hdl=2027.42/71908|s2cid=26852165|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/71908/1/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x.pdf|access-date=2019-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126203618/http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/71908/1/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x.pdf|archive-date=2012-01-26|url-status=live|hdl-access=free}}</ref>  While discrimination may be committed by individuals, it may also occur through [[Structural inequality|structural inequalities]], in which rights and opportunities are not equally accessible to all.<ref name="Unnamed_8-20240416095643">{{Cite journal|author-link1=Mieke Verloo|last=Verloo|first=Mieke|date=2006|title=Multiple Inequalities, Intersectionality and the European Union|journal=European Journal of Women's Studies|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=211–228|doi=10.1177/1350506806065753|s2cid=21752012|issn=1350-5068|url=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/22512|access-date=2018-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210152558/https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/22512|archive-date=2019-02-10|url-status=live|hdl=2066/46605|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Those in favour of [[minority rights]] often pursue laws designed to protect minority groups from discrimination and afford members of the minority group equal social status and legal protections as held by members of the dominant group.<ref name="Unnamed_9-20240416095643">{{Cite book|title=The minority rights revolution|last=Skrentny|first=John David|date=2002|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674043732|location=Cambridge, Mass.|oclc=431342257}}</ref>
 == Bayani ==
@@ Layi na 23 / Layi na 23 @@
 === Sociological ===
-[[Louis Wirth]] defined a minority group as "a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the [[society]] in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination".<ref name=":3">{{cite book|title=The Science of Man in the World Crisis|last=Wirth|first=L.|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1945|editor-last=Linton|editor-first=Ralph|location=New York|page=347|chapter=The Problem of Minority Groups}} The political scientist and law professor, Gad Barzilai, has offered a theoretical definition of non-ruling communities that conceptualizes groups that do not rule and are excluded from resources of political power. Barzilai, G. ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.</ref> The definition includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively [[Ascribed status|ascribed]] by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioral characteristics; it is also subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the basis of group identity or [[Social solidarity|solidarity]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/12323228|title=Minorities in the new world: six case studies|last1=Wagley|first1=Charles|last2=Harris|first2=Marvin|date=1958|publisher=New York: Columbia University Press|language=en}}</ref> Thus, minority group status is categorical: an individual who exhibits the physical or behavioral characteristics of a given minority group is accorded the status of that group and is subject to the same treatment as other members of that group.<ref name=":3" />
+[[Louis Wirth]] defined a minority group as "a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the [[society]] in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination".<ref name=":3">{{cite book|title=The Science of Man in the World Crisis|last=Wirth|first=L.|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1945|editor-last=Linton|editor-first=Ralph|location=New York|page=347|chapter=The Problem of Minority Groups}} The political scientist and law professor, Gad Barzilai, has offered a theoretical definition of non-ruling communities that conceptualizes groups that do not rule and are excluded from resources of political power. Barzilai, G. ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.</ref> The definition includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively [[Ascribed status|ascribed]] by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioral characteristics; it is also subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the basis of group identity or [[Social solidarity|solidarity]].<ref name="Unnamed_10-20240416095643">{{Cite book|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/12323228|title=Minorities in the new world: six case studies|last1=Wagley|first1=Charles|last2=Harris|first2=Marvin|date=1958|publisher=New York: Columbia University Press|language=en}}</ref> Thus, minority group status is categorical: an individual who exhibits the physical or behavioral characteristics of a given minority group is accorded the status of that group and is subject to the same treatment as other members of that group.<ref name=":3" />
-[[Joe Feagin]], states that a minority group has five characteristics: (1) suffering discrimination and subordination, (2) physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved by the dominant group, (3) a shared sense of collective identity and common burdens, (4) socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority status, and (5) tendency to marry within the group.<ref>{{cite book|title=Racial and Ethnic Relations|author=Joe R. Feagin|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1984|isbn=978-0-13-750125-0|edition= 2nd|pages=10}}</ref>
+[[Joe Feagin]], states that a minority group has five characteristics: (1) suffering discrimination and subordination, (2) physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved by the dominant group, (3) a shared sense of collective identity and common burdens, (4) socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority status, and (5) tendency to marry within the group.<ref name="Unnamed_11-20240416095643">{{cite book|title=Racial and Ethnic Relations|author=Joe R. Feagin|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1984|isbn=978-0-13-750125-0|edition= 2nd|pages=10}}</ref>
 ==== Criticisms ====
-There is a controversy with the use of the word minority, as it has a generic and an academic usage.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cultural Diversity Glossary of Terms|publisher=Diversity Training University International Publications Division|year=2008|pages=4}}</ref> Common usage of the term indicates a statistical minority; however, academics refer to power differences among groups rather than differences in population size among groups.<ref name="Barzilai 20102">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1sHzZbXdjggC|title=Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities|last=Barzilai|first=Gad|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0472024001|access-date=2017-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228091852/https://books.google.com/books?id=1sHzZbXdjggC|archive-date=2017-02-28|url-status=live}}</ref>
+There is a controversy with the use of the word minority, as it has a generic and an academic usage.<ref name="Unnamed_12-20240416095643">{{cite book|title=Cultural Diversity Glossary of Terms|publisher=Diversity Training University International Publications Division|year=2008|pages=4}}</ref> Common usage of the term indicates a statistical minority; however, academics refer to power differences among groups rather than differences in population size among groups.<ref name="Barzilai 20102">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1sHzZbXdjggC|title=Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities|last=Barzilai|first=Gad|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0472024001|access-date=2017-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228091852/https://books.google.com/books?id=1sHzZbXdjggC|archive-date=2017-02-28|url-status=live}}</ref>
 The above criticism is based on the idea that a group can be considered a minority even if it includes such a large number of people that it is numerically not a minority in society.
-Some sociologists have criticized the concept of "minority/majority", arguing this language excludes or neglects changing or unstable cultural identities, as well as cultural affiliations across national boundaries.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Laurie|first1=Timothy|title=The Concept of Minority for the Study of Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/31725889|journal=Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies|volume=31|issue=1|pages=1–12|year=2017|last2=Khan|first2=Rimi|doi=10.1080/10304312.2016.1264110|s2cid=152009904}}</ref> As such, the term historically excluded groups (HEGs) is often similarly used to highlight the role of historical oppression and domination, and how this results in the under-representation of particular groups in various areas of social life.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Konrad|first1=Alison M.|date=1999|work=Handbook of Gender & Work|pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofgender0000unse/page/429 429–452]|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|doi=10.4135/9781452231365.n22|last2=Linnehan|first2=Frank|title=Handbook of Gender & Work Handbook of gender & work|isbn=9780761913559|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofgender0000unse/page/429}}</ref>
+Some sociologists have criticized the concept of "minority/majority", arguing this language excludes or neglects changing or unstable cultural identities, as well as cultural affiliations across national boundaries.<ref name="Unnamed_13-20240416095643">{{Citation|last1=Laurie|first1=Timothy|title=The Concept of Minority for the Study of Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/31725889|journal=Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies|volume=31|issue=1|pages=1–12|year=2017|last2=Khan|first2=Rimi|doi=10.1080/10304312.2016.1264110|s2cid=152009904}}</ref> As such, the term historically excluded groups (HEGs) is often similarly used to highlight the role of historical oppression and domination, and how this results in the under-representation of particular groups in various areas of social life.<ref name="Unnamed_14-20240416095643">{{Citation|last1=Konrad|first1=Alison M.|date=1999|work=Handbook of Gender & Work|pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofgender0000unse/page/429 429–452]|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|doi=10.4135/9781452231365.n22|last2=Linnehan|first2=Frank|title=Handbook of Gender & Work Handbook of gender & work|isbn=9780761913559|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofgender0000unse/page/429}}</ref>
 === Political ===
-The term national minority is often used to discuss minority groups in international and national politics.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal|author=Daniel Šmihula|year=2008|title=National Minorities in the Law of the EC/EU|url=http://ns.ier.ro/site/documente/rjea_pdf/RJEA_Vol8_No3_Sept2008.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Romanian Journal of European Affairs|volume=8|pages=51–81|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823110657/http://ns.ier.ro/site/documente/rjea_pdf/RJEA_Vol8_No3_Sept2008.pdf|archive-date=2011-08-23|number=3}}</ref> All countries contain some degree of racial, ethnic, or linguistic diversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|title=The most (and least) culturally diverse countries in the world|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811213739/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|archive-date=2019-08-11|access-date=2019-11-01}}</ref> In addition, minorities may also be immigrant, indigenous or landless nomadic communities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The representation of minorities and indigenous peoples in parliament : a global overview|first=Oleh|last=Protsyk|date=2010|publisher=Inter-parliamentary Union|others=Inter-parliamentary Union.627|location=Geneva|oclc=754152959}}</ref> This often results in variations in language, culture, beliefs, practices, that set some groups apart from the dominant group. As these differences are usually perceived negatively, this results in loss of social and political power for members of minority groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Verkuyten|first=Maykel|date=2005|title=Ethnic Group Identification and Group Evaluation Among Minority and Majority Groups: Testing the Multiculturalism Hypothesis|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=88|issue=1|pages=121–138|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.121|pmid=15631579|issn=1939-1315|citeseerx=10.1.1.595.7633}}</ref>
+The term national minority is often used to discuss minority groups in international and national politics.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal|author=Daniel Šmihula|year=2008|title=National Minorities in the Law of the EC/EU|url=http://ns.ier.ro/site/documente/rjea_pdf/RJEA_Vol8_No3_Sept2008.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Romanian Journal of European Affairs|volume=8|pages=51–81|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823110657/http://ns.ier.ro/site/documente/rjea_pdf/RJEA_Vol8_No3_Sept2008.pdf|archive-date=2011-08-23|number=3}}</ref> All countries contain some degree of racial, ethnic, or linguistic diversity.<ref name="Unnamed_15-20240416095643">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|title=The most (and least) culturally diverse countries in the world|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811213739/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|archive-date=2019-08-11|access-date=2019-11-01}}</ref> In addition, minorities may also be immigrant, indigenous or landless nomadic communities.<ref name="Unnamed_16-20240416095643">{{Cite book|title=The representation of minorities and indigenous peoples in parliament : a global overview|first=Oleh|last=Protsyk|date=2010|publisher=Inter-parliamentary Union|others=Inter-parliamentary Union.627|location=Geneva|oclc=754152959}}</ref> This often results in variations in language, culture, beliefs, practices, that set some groups apart from the dominant group. As these differences are usually perceived negatively, this results in loss of social and political power for members of minority groups.<ref name="Unnamed_17-20240416095643">{{Cite journal|last=Verkuyten|first=Maykel|date=2005|title=Ethnic Group Identification and Group Evaluation Among Minority and Majority Groups: Testing the Multiculturalism Hypothesis|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=88|issue=1|pages=121–138|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.121|pmid=15631579|issn=1939-1315|citeseerx=10.1.1.595.7633}}</ref>
-There is no legal definition of national minorities in international law, though protection of minority groups is outlined by the United Nations [[Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities]]. [[International criminal law]] can protect the rights of racial or ethnic minorities in several ways.<ref>[[Lyal Sunga|Lyal S. Sunga]] (2004). ''International Criminal Law: Protection of Minority Rights, Beyond a One-Dimensional State: An Emerging Right to Autonomy?'' ed. Zelim Skurbaty. (2004) 255–275.</ref> The right to [[self-determination]] is a key issue. The Council of Europe regulates minority rights in the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] and the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]].
+There is no legal definition of national minorities in international law, though protection of minority groups is outlined by the United Nations [[Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities]]. [[International criminal law]] can protect the rights of racial or ethnic minorities in several ways.<ref name="Unnamed_18-20240416095643">[[Lyal Sunga|Lyal S. Sunga]] (2004). ''International Criminal Law: Protection of Minority Rights, Beyond a One-Dimensional State: An Emerging Right to Autonomy?'' ed. Zelim Skurbaty. (2004) 255–275.</ref> The right to [[self-determination]] is a key issue. The Council of Europe regulates minority rights in the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] and the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]].
-In some places, subordinate [[ethnic group]]s may constitute a numerical majority, such as Blacks in [[South Africa under apartheid]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=du Toit|first1=Pierre|last2=Theron|first2=François|date=1988|title=Ethnic and minority groups, and constitutional change in South Africa|journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies|language=en|volume=7|issue=1–2|pages=133–147|doi=10.1080/02589008808729481|issn=0258-9001}}</ref> In the [[United States]], for example, non-Hispanic Whites constitute the majority (63.4%) and all other racial and ethnic groups ([[Mexican Americans|Mexican]], [[African Americans]], [[Asian Americans]], [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]], and [[Native Hawaiians]]) are classified as "minorities".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045217|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States|website=Census Bureau QuickFacts|language=en-US|access-date=2018-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816204719/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045217|archive-date=2018-08-16|url-status=live}}</ref> If the non-Hispanic White population falls below 50% the group will only be the ''plurality'', not the majority.
+In some places, subordinate [[ethnic group]]s may constitute a numerical majority, such as Blacks in [[South Africa under apartheid]].<ref name="Unnamed_19-20240416095643">{{Cite journal|last1=du Toit|first1=Pierre|last2=Theron|first2=François|date=1988|title=Ethnic and minority groups, and constitutional change in South Africa|journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies|language=en|volume=7|issue=1–2|pages=133–147|doi=10.1080/02589008808729481|issn=0258-9001}}</ref> In the [[United States]], for example, non-Hispanic Whites constitute the majority (63.4%) and all other racial and ethnic groups ([[Mexican Americans|Mexican]], [[African Americans]], [[Asian Americans]], [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]], and [[Native Hawaiians]]) are classified as "minorities".<ref name="Unnamed_20-20240416095643">{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045217|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States|website=Census Bureau QuickFacts|language=en-US|access-date=2018-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816204719/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045217|archive-date=2018-08-16|url-status=live}}</ref> If the non-Hispanic White population falls below 50% the group will only be the ''plurality'', not the majority.
 == Examples==
 ===Racial and ethnic minorities===
-Racial minorities, sometimes referred to synonymously as [[people of color]] or non-white people, are minority groups that are discriminated against on the basis of [[race (human categorization)|race]]. Though definitions vary cross-culturally, modern racism is primarily based on the [[Historical race concepts|European and American classifications of race]] that developed during the [[Age of Exploration]], as European countries sought to categorize the nations they colonized into [[scientific racism|pseudo-scientific]] [[phenotypical]] groups.<ref name=Foundations>{{cite web|url=https://nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/historical-foundations-race|title=Historical Foundations of Race}}</ref> In the United States's system, [[Whiteness theory|whiteness]] is at the top of a hierarchy that automatically classifies [[mixed-race]] individuals as [[hypodescent|their subordinate race]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/janicegassam/2022/02/22/the-evolution-of-whiteness-in-the-united-states/?sh=665fc1a87626|title=The Evolution Of Whiteness In The United States|website=[[Forbes]] }}</ref>
+Racial minorities, sometimes referred to synonymously as [[people of color]] or non-white people, are minority groups that are discriminated against on the basis of [[race (human categorization)|race]]. Though definitions vary cross-culturally, modern racism is primarily based on the [[Historical race concepts|European and American classifications of race]] that developed during the [[Age of Exploration]], as European countries sought to categorize the nations they colonized into [[scientific racism|pseudo-scientific]] [[phenotypical]] groups.<ref name=Foundations>{{cite web|url=https://nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/historical-foundations-race|title=Historical Foundations of Race}}</ref> In the United States's system, [[Whiteness theory|whiteness]] is at the top of a hierarchy that automatically classifies [[mixed-race]] individuals as [[hypodescent|their subordinate race]].<ref name="Unnamed_21-20240416095643">{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/janicegassam/2022/02/22/the-evolution-of-whiteness-in-the-united-states/?sh=665fc1a87626|title=The Evolution Of Whiteness In The United States|website=[[Forbes]] }}</ref>
-Sometimes, racist policies explicitly codified pseudo-scientific definitions of race: such as the United States' [[one-drop rule]] and [[blood quantum laws]], South Africa's [[apartheid]], and Nazi Germany [[Nuremberg race laws]]. Other times, race has been a matter of self-identification, with [[de facto]] racist policies implemented.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://political-science.iresearchnet.com/race-ethnicity-and-politics/|title=Race, Ethnicity, and Politics|quote=In lieu of de jure segregation, various manifestations of de facto segregation persist to this day ... In contrast to de jure segregation, de facto segregation occurs as a result of social practices that, although not codified in law, have a similar outcome in terms of maintaining the separation of a minority group from the majority group.}}</ref> In addition to governmental policy, racism may persist as social prejudice and discrimination.
+Sometimes, racist policies explicitly codified pseudo-scientific definitions of race: such as the United States' [[one-drop rule]] and [[blood quantum laws]], South Africa's [[apartheid]], and Nazi Germany [[Nuremberg race laws]]. Other times, race has been a matter of self-identification, with [[de facto]] racist policies implemented.<ref name="Unnamed_22-20240416095643">{{cite web|url=http://political-science.iresearchnet.com/race-ethnicity-and-politics/|title=Race, Ethnicity, and Politics|quote=In lieu of de jure segregation, various manifestations of de facto segregation persist to this day ... In contrast to de jure segregation, de facto segregation occurs as a result of social practices that, although not codified in law, have a similar outcome in terms of maintaining the separation of a minority group from the majority group.}}</ref> In addition to governmental policy, racism may persist as social prejudice and discrimination.
-There are also social groups that are usually identified through [[ethnicity]].<ref name="Foundations"/> Like race, ethnicity is largely determined [[cultural heritage|hereditarily]]. However, it can also be influenced by factors such as [[adoption]], [[cultural assimilation]], [[religious conversion]], and [[language shift]]. As race and ethnicity often overlap,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/difference-between-race-ethnicity.html|title=What's the difference between race and ethnicity?|website=[[Live Science]] |date=3 November 2022 }}</ref> many ethnic minorities are also racial minorities. However, this is not always the case, and some people are ethnic minorities while also being classified as white, such as some [[Jews]], [[Romani people|Roma]], and [[Sámi]]. In some cases, their ethnic identities have been seen as negating their whiteness, in both [[Intergroup relations|inter-]] and [[social group|intra-]]group identification.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jewishjournal.com/cover_story/295918/were-jews-were-not-white-we-define-ourselves/|title=We're Jews, We're Not White, We Define Ourselves |date=27 March 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2018/10/19/i-look-white-my-mother-is-native-american-my-identity-is-more-than-my-dna/|title=My mother is Native American, but I look white. My identity is more than my DNA.|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] }}</ref>
+There are also social groups that are usually identified through [[ethnicity]].<ref name="Foundations"/> Like race, ethnicity is largely determined [[cultural heritage|hereditarily]]. However, it can also be influenced by factors such as [[adoption]], [[cultural assimilation]], [[religious conversion]], and [[language shift]]. As race and ethnicity often overlap,<ref name="Unnamed_23-20240416095643">{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/difference-between-race-ethnicity.html|title=What's the difference between race and ethnicity?|website=[[Live Science]] |date=3 November 2022 }}</ref> many ethnic minorities are also racial minorities. However, this is not always the case, and some people are ethnic minorities while also being classified as white, such as some [[Jews]], [[Romani people|Roma]], and [[Sámi]]. In some cases, their ethnic identities have been seen as negating their whiteness, in both [[Intergroup relations|inter-]] and [[social group|intra-]]group identification.<ref name="Unnamed_24-20240416095643">{{cite web|url=https://jewishjournal.com/cover_story/295918/were-jews-were-not-white-we-define-ourselves/|title=We're Jews, We're Not White, We Define Ourselves |date=27 March 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Unnamed_25-20240416095643">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2018/10/19/i-look-white-my-mother-is-native-american-my-identity-is-more-than-my-dna/|title=My mother is Native American, but I look white. My identity is more than my DNA.|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] }}</ref>
-In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, there is a preference to categorise people by ethnicity instead of race.<ref name="gov uk">{{cite web |title=Writing about ethnicity |url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/style-guide/writing-about-ethnicity |website=www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk |access-date=17 September 2023 |language=en |date=December 2021}}</ref> Ethnicity encompasses a mix of "long shared cultural experiences, religious practices, traditions, ancestry, language, dialect or national origins".<ref>{{cite web |title=A guide to race and ethnicity terminology and language |url=https://www.lawsociety.org.uk/topics/ethnic-minority-lawyers/a-guide-to-race-and-ethnicity-terminology-and-language |website=www.lawsociety.org.uk |publisher=The Law Society |access-date=17 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The United Kingdom considers everyone but [[white British]] people to be an ethnic minority, including other white Europeans such as [[White Irish]] people (excluding in Northern Ireland).<ref name="gov uk" />
+In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, there is a preference to categorise people by ethnicity instead of race.<ref name="gov uk">{{cite web |title=Writing about ethnicity |url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/style-guide/writing-about-ethnicity |website=www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk |access-date=17 September 2023 |language=en |date=December 2021}}</ref> Ethnicity encompasses a mix of "long shared cultural experiences, religious practices, traditions, ancestry, language, dialect or national origins".<ref name="Unnamed_26-20240416095643">{{cite web |title=A guide to race and ethnicity terminology and language |url=https://www.lawsociety.org.uk/topics/ethnic-minority-lawyers/a-guide-to-race-and-ethnicity-terminology-and-language |website=www.lawsociety.org.uk |publisher=The Law Society |access-date=17 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The United Kingdom considers everyone but [[white British]] people to be an ethnic minority, including other white Europeans such as [[White Irish]] people (excluding in Northern Ireland).<ref name="gov uk" />
 === National minorities ===
-A national minority is a social group within a state that differs from the majority and/or dominant population in terms of ethnicity, language, culture, or religion, but also it also tends to have a close link with a specific territory from which the minority social group originates.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date= |title=United Nations Guide for Minorities |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/minorities/united-nations-guide-minorities |website=www.ohchr.org/en/ohchr_homepage}}</ref>
+A national minority is a social group within a state that differs from the majority and/or dominant population in terms of ethnicity, language, culture, or religion, but also it also tends to have a close link with a specific territory from which the minority social group originates.<ref name="Unnamed_27-20240416095643">{{Cite web |last= |date= |title=United Nations Guide for Minorities |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/minorities/united-nations-guide-minorities |website=www.ohchr.org/en/ohchr_homepage}}</ref>
 === Involuntary minorities ===
@@ Layi na 70 / Layi na 70 @@
 === Disabled people ===
 {{Unreferenced section|date=January 2020}}
-Leading up to the [[Human Rights Act 1998]] in the UK, a rise in the awareness relating to how disabled people were being treated began. Many started to believe that they were being denied basic human rights. This act had a section that stated if authorities did not protect people with learning disabilities from others' actions, such as harm or neglect, then they could be prosecuted.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Clements|first1=Luke|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1t8964p|title=Disabled people and European human rights: A review of the implications of the 1998 Human Rights Act for disabled children and adults in the UK|last2=Read|first2=Janet|date=2003|publisher=Bristol University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1t8964p |jstor=j.ctt1t8964p|s2cid=246084235 |edition=1}}</ref>
+Leading up to the [[Human Rights Act 1998]] in the UK, a rise in the awareness relating to how disabled people were being treated began. Many started to believe that they were being denied basic human rights. This act had a section that stated if authorities did not protect people with learning disabilities from others' actions, such as harm or neglect, then they could be prosecuted.<ref name="Unnamed_28-20240416095643">{{Cite book|last1=Clements|first1=Luke|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1t8964p|title=Disabled people and European human rights: A review of the implications of the 1998 Human Rights Act for disabled children and adults in the UK|last2=Read|first2=Janet|date=2003|publisher=Bristol University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1t8964p |jstor=j.ctt1t8964p|s2cid=246084235 |edition=1}}</ref>
 The [[disability rights movement]] has contributed to an understanding of disabled people as a minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvantaged by society, not just as people who are disadvantaged by their impairments. Advocates of disability rights emphasize the difference in physical or psychological functioning rather than inferiority. For example, some [[autistic]] people argue for acceptance of [[neurodiversity]], much as opponents of [[racism]] argue for acceptance of ethnic diversity. The [[deaf community]] is often regarded as a linguistic and cultural minority rather than a group with disabilities, and some [[deaf]] people do not see themselves as having a disability at all. Rather, they are disadvantaged by technologies and social institutions designed to cater to the dominant group. (''See the [[Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]]''.)
@@ Layi na 76 / Layi na 76 @@
 === Religious minorities ===
 {{main|Minority religion}}
-People belonging to religious minorities have a faith that is different from that held by the majority. Most countries of the world have religious minorities. It is now widely accepted in [[Western world|the West]] that people should have the freedom to choose their religion,{{source?|date=July 2023}} including the right to convert from one religion to another, or not to have any religion ([[atheism]] and/or [[agnosticism]]). However, in many countries, this freedom is constricted. In [[Egypt]], a new system of identity cards<ref>See "The Situation of the Bahá'í Community of Egypt" and "Religion Today: Bahais' struggle for recognition reveals a less tolerant face of Egypt", [http://www.bahai.org/persecution/egypt/update Bahai.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001140937/http://www.bahai.org/persecution/egypt/update |date=2006-10-01 }},  [http://dwb.sacbee.com/24hour/religion/story/3315375p-12212722c.html DWB.sacbee.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014053747/http://dwb.sacbee.com/24hour/religion/story/3315375p-12212722c.html |date=2007-10-14 }}</ref> requires all citizens to state their religion—and the only choices are [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], or [[Judaism]] (See [[Egyptian identification card controversy]]). Another example is the case of decreasing population of [[minorities in Pakistan]], where they are being forcefully converted or killed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/another-hindu-girl-abducted-forcibly-converted-to-islam-in-pakistans-sindh-family-stages-protest/494399|title=Another Hindu girl abducted, forcibly converted to Islam in Pakistan's Sindh; family stages protest|website=www.timesnownews.com|date=24 September 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925100901/https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/another-hindu-girl-abducted-forcibly-converted-to-islam-in-pakistans-sindh-family-stages-protest/494399|archive-date=2019-09-25|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/hindu-medical-student-found-dead-in-pakistan-hostel-brother-alleges-foul-play/story-GeJuS3xpHigO3IFhBFvvCJ.html|title=Hindu medical student found dead in Pakistan hostel, brother alleges foul play|date=2019-09-17|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2019-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925100903/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/hindu-medical-student-found-dead-in-pakistan-hostel-brother-alleges-foul-play/story-GeJuS3xpHigO3IFhBFvvCJ.html|archive-date=2019-09-25|url-status=live}}</ref>
+People belonging to religious minorities have a faith that is different from that held by the majority. Most countries of the world have religious minorities. It is now widely accepted in [[Western world|the West]] that people should have the freedom to choose their religion,{{source?|date=July 2023}} including the right to convert from one religion to another, or not to have any religion ([[atheism]] and/or [[agnosticism]]). However, in many countries, this freedom is constricted. In [[Egypt]], a new system of identity cards<ref name="Unnamed_29-20240416095643">See "The Situation of the Bahá'í Community of Egypt" and "Religion Today: Bahais' struggle for recognition reveals a less tolerant face of Egypt", [http://www.bahai.org/persecution/egypt/update Bahai.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001140937/http://www.bahai.org/persecution/egypt/update |date=2006-10-01 }},  [http://dwb.sacbee.com/24hour/religion/story/3315375p-12212722c.html DWB.sacbee.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014053747/http://dwb.sacbee.com/24hour/religion/story/3315375p-12212722c.html |date=2007-10-14 }}</ref> requires all citizens to state their religion—and the only choices are [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], or [[Judaism]] (See [[Egyptian identification card controversy]]). Another example is the case of decreasing population of [[minorities in Pakistan]], where they are being forcefully converted or killed.<ref name="Unnamed_30-20240416095643">{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/another-hindu-girl-abducted-forcibly-converted-to-islam-in-pakistans-sindh-family-stages-protest/494399|title=Another Hindu girl abducted, forcibly converted to Islam in Pakistan's Sindh; family stages protest|website=www.timesnownews.com|date=24 September 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925100901/https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/another-hindu-girl-abducted-forcibly-converted-to-islam-in-pakistans-sindh-family-stages-protest/494399|archive-date=2019-09-25|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Unnamed_31-20240416095643">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/hindu-medical-student-found-dead-in-pakistan-hostel-brother-alleges-foul-play/story-GeJuS3xpHigO3IFhBFvvCJ.html|title=Hindu medical student found dead in Pakistan hostel, brother alleges foul play|date=2019-09-17|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2019-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925100903/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/hindu-medical-student-found-dead-in-pakistan-hostel-brother-alleges-foul-play/story-GeJuS3xpHigO3IFhBFvvCJ.html|archive-date=2019-09-25|url-status=live}}</ref>
 === Women as a disadvantaged group ===
-In most societies, numbers of men and women [[sex ratio|are roughly equal]]. Though women are not considered to be a minority,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/minority |website=Merriam-Webster |access-date=6 February 2020|title=Definition of Minority}}</ref> the status of women, as a subordinate group, has led to many social scientists to refer to them as a disadvantaged group.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hacker|first=Helen Mayer|year=1951|title=Women as a Minority Group|journal=[[Social Forces]]|volume=30|issue=1|pages=60–69|doi=10.2307/2571742|jstor=2571742}}</ref> Though women's legal rights and status vary widely across countries, women often experience social inequalities, relative to men, in various societies.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Multicultural jurisdictions : cultural differences and women's rights|author=Shachar, Ayelet|date=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0511040801|location=Cambridge, UK|oclc=56216656}}</ref> Women are sometimes denied access to education and access to the same opportunities as men, especially in under-developed countries.<ref>Women, U. N. (2018). Annual Report 2017–2018.</ref>
+In most societies, numbers of men and women [[sex ratio|are roughly equal]]. Though women are not considered to be a minority,<ref name="Unnamed_32-20240416095643">{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/minority |website=Merriam-Webster |access-date=6 February 2020|title=Definition of Minority}}</ref> the status of women, as a subordinate group, has led to many social scientists to refer to them as a disadvantaged group.<ref name="Unnamed_33-20240416095643">{{cite journal|last=Hacker|first=Helen Mayer|year=1951|title=Women as a Minority Group|journal=[[Social Forces]]|volume=30|issue=1|pages=60–69|doi=10.2307/2571742|jstor=2571742}}</ref> Though women's legal rights and status vary widely across countries, women often experience social inequalities, relative to men, in various societies.<ref name="Unnamed_34-20240416095643">{{Cite book|title=Multicultural jurisdictions : cultural differences and women's rights|author=Shachar, Ayelet|date=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0511040801|location=Cambridge, UK|oclc=56216656}}</ref> Women are sometimes denied access to education and access to the same opportunities as men, especially in under-developed countries.<ref name="Unnamed_35-20240416095643">Women, U. N. (2018). Annual Report 2017–2018.</ref>
 == Law and government ==
@@ Layi na 88 / Layi na 88 @@
 Many contemporary governments prefer to assume the people they rule all belong to the same nationality rather than separate ones based on ethnicity. The United States asks for [[race (U.S. Census)|race and ethnicity]] on its official census forms, which thus breaks up and organizes its population into sub-groups, primarily racial rather than national. [[Spain]] does not divide its nationals by ethnic group or national minorities, although it does maintain an official notion of minority languages, that is one of the criteria for to determine a national minority, upon the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]].
-Some especially significant or powerful minorities receive comprehensive protection and political representation. For example, the former Yugoslav Republic of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] recognizes the three constitutive nations, none of which constitutes a numerical majority (see [[nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]). However, other minorities such as [[Romani people|Roma]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00421|title=Political recognition of Roma People in Spain. [Social Impact]. WORKALÓ. The creation of new occupational patterns for cultural minorities: the Gypsy Case (2001–2004). Framework Programme 5 (FP5)|website=SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905191302/http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00421|archive-date=2017-09-05|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Jews]], are officially labelled "foreign" and are excluded from many of these protections. For example, they may be excluded from political positions, including the presidency.<ref>[http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/minorities/2._framework_convention_(monitoring)/2._monitoring_mechanism/4._opinions_of_the_advisory_committee/1._country_specific_opinions/1._first_cycle/PDF_1st_OP_BiH.pdf Opinion of the Council of Europe's Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, in particular paragraphs 37–43] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616100431/http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/minorities/2._framework_convention_(monitoring)/2._monitoring_mechanism/4._opinions_of_the_advisory_committee/1._country_specific_opinions/1._first_cycle/PDF_1st_OP_BiH.pdf |date=2007-06-16 }}</ref>
+Some especially significant or powerful minorities receive comprehensive protection and political representation. For example, the former Yugoslav Republic of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] recognizes the three constitutive nations, none of which constitutes a numerical majority (see [[nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]). However, other minorities such as [[Romani people|Roma]]<ref name="Unnamed_36-20240416095643">{{Cite web|url=http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00421|title=Political recognition of Roma People in Spain. [Social Impact]. WORKALÓ. The creation of new occupational patterns for cultural minorities: the Gypsy Case (2001–2004). Framework Programme 5 (FP5)|website=SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905191302/http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00421|archive-date=2017-09-05|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Jews]], are officially labelled "foreign" and are excluded from many of these protections. For example, they may be excluded from political positions, including the presidency.<ref name="Unnamed_37-20240416095643">[http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/minorities/2._framework_convention_(monitoring)/2._monitoring_mechanism/4._opinions_of_the_advisory_committee/1._country_specific_opinions/1._first_cycle/PDF_1st_OP_BiH.pdf Opinion of the Council of Europe's Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, in particular paragraphs 37–43] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616100431/http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/minorities/2._framework_convention_(monitoring)/2._monitoring_mechanism/4._opinions_of_the_advisory_committee/1._country_specific_opinions/1._first_cycle/PDF_1st_OP_BiH.pdf |date=2007-06-16 }}</ref>
-There is debate over recognizing minority groups and their privileges. One view<ref>For example, J.A. Lindgren-Alves, member of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, speaking at the Committee's 67th Session (Summary Record of the 1724th Meeting, 23 August 2005, CERD/C/SR.1724)</ref> is that the application of special rights to minority groups may harm some countries, such as new states in Africa or Latin America not founded on the European [[nation-state]] model, since minority recognition may interfere with establishing a national identity. It may hamper the integration of the minority into mainstream society, perhaps leading to [[separatism]] or [[supremacist|supremacism]]. In [[Canada]], some{{who|date=January 2012}} feel that the failure of the dominant [[English language|English]]-speaking majority to integrate [[French Canadians]] has provoked [[Quebec separatism]].
+There is debate over recognizing minority groups and their privileges. One view<ref name="Unnamed_38-20240416095643">For example, J.A. Lindgren-Alves, member of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, speaking at the Committee's 67th Session (Summary Record of the 1724th Meeting, 23 August 2005, CERD/C/SR.1724)</ref> is that the application of special rights to minority groups may harm some countries, such as new states in Africa or Latin America not founded on the European [[nation-state]] model, since minority recognition may interfere with establishing a national identity. It may hamper the integration of the minority into mainstream society, perhaps leading to [[separatism]] or [[supremacist|supremacism]]. In [[Canada]], some{{who|date=January 2012}} feel that the failure of the dominant [[English language|English]]-speaking majority to integrate [[French Canadians]] has provoked [[Quebec separatism]].
-Others assert that minorities require specific protections to ensure that they are not marginalized: for example, [[bilingual education]] may be needed to allow linguistic minorities to fully integrate into the school system and compete equally in society. In this view, rights for minorities strengthen the nation-building project, as members of minorities see their interests well served, and willingly accept the legitimacy of the nation and their integration (not assimilation) within it.<ref>See {{cite book |first=K. |last=Henrard |title=Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights and the Right to Self-Determination |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |year=2000 |pages=218–224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QFF5nzuAze0C&pg=PA218 |isbn=978-9041113597 |access-date=2017-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228001145/https://books.google.com/books?id=QFF5nzuAze0C&pg=PA218 |archive-date=2017-02-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+Others assert that minorities require specific protections to ensure that they are not marginalized: for example, [[bilingual education]] may be needed to allow linguistic minorities to fully integrate into the school system and compete equally in society. In this view, rights for minorities strengthen the nation-building project, as members of minorities see their interests well served, and willingly accept the legitimacy of the nation and their integration (not assimilation) within it.<ref name="Unnamed_39-20240416095643">See {{cite book |first=K. |last=Henrard |title=Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights and the Right to Self-Determination |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |year=2000 |pages=218–224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QFF5nzuAze0C&pg=PA218 |isbn=978-9041113597 |access-date=2017-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228001145/https://books.google.com/books?id=QFF5nzuAze0C&pg=PA218 |archive-date=2017-02-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 == See also ==
@@ Layi na 149 / Layi na 149 @@
-In terms of sociology, economics, and politics, a demographic that takes up the smallest fraction of the population is not necessarily labelled the "minority" if it wields dominant power. In the academic context, the terms "minority" and "majority" are used in terms of hierarchical [[power structure]]s. For example, in South Africa, during [[Apartheid]], white Europeans held virtually all social, economic, and political power over black Africans. For this reason, black Africans are the "minority group", despite the fact that they outnumber white Europeans in South Africa. This is why academics more frequently use the term "minority group" to refer to a [[Categorization|category]] of people that experience relative disadvantage, as compared to members of a dominant social group.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Race, ethnicity, gender, & class : the sociology of group conflict and change|author=Healey, Joseph F.|others=Stepnick, Andi; O'Brien, Eileen, 1972–|isbn=9781506346946|edition= Eighth |location=Thousand Oaks, California|oclc=1006532841|date=2018-03-02}}</ref> To address this ambiguity, [[Harris Mylonas]] has proposed the term "non-core group", instead of "minority group", to refer to any aggregation of individuals that is perceived as an unassimilated ethnic group (on a linguistic, religious, physical, or ideological basis) by the ruling political elite of a country"<ref>{{cite book |last=Mylonas |first=Harris |title=The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1107661998 |page=xx| url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/politics-nation-building-making-co-nationals-refugees-and-minorities}}</ref> and reserves the term 'minority' only for groups that have been granted minority rights by their state of residence.
+In terms of sociology, economics, and politics, a demographic that takes up the smallest fraction of the population is not necessarily labelled the "minority" if it wields dominant power. In the academic context, the terms "minority" and "majority" are used in terms of hierarchical [[power structure]]s. For example, in South Africa, during [[Apartheid]], white Europeans held virtually all social, economic, and political power over black Africans. For this reason, black Africans are the "minority group", despite the fact that they outnumber white Europeans in South Africa. This is why academics more frequently use the term "minority group" to refer to a [[Categorization|category]] of people that experience relative disadvantage, as compared to members of a dominant social group.<ref name="Unnamed-20240416095643"/> To address this ambiguity, [[Harris Mylonas]] has proposed the term "non-core group", instead of "minority group", to refer to any aggregation of individuals that is perceived as an unassimilated ethnic group (on a linguistic, religious, physical, or ideological basis) by the ruling political elite of a country"<ref name="Unnamed_2-20240416095643"/> and reserves the term 'minority' only for groups that have been granted minority rights by their state of residence.
-Minority group membership is typically based on differences in observable characteristics or practices, such as: [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]] (ethnic minority), [[Race (human categorization)|race]] (racial minority), religion ([[Minority religion|religious minority]]), sexual orientation ([[sexual minority]]), or [[disability]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Essentials of sociology|first=George|last=Ritzer|isbn=9781483340173|location=Los Angeles|oclc=871004576|date=2014-01-15}}</ref> The framework of [[intersectionality]] can be used to recognize that an individual may simultaneously hold membership in multiple minority groups (e.g. both a racial and religious minority).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Melanie |title=Intersectionality, Quotas, and Minority Women's Political Representation Worldwide |journal=American Political Science Review |date=2011 |volume=3 |issue=105 |pages=604–620 |doi=10.1017/S0003055411000293|s2cid=2592368 }}</ref> Likewise, individuals may also be part of a minority group in regard to some characteristics, but part of a dominant group in regard to others.<ref name=":4"/>
+Minority group membership is typically based on differences in observable characteristics or practices, such as: [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]] (ethnic minority), [[Race (human categorization)|race]] (racial minority), religion ([[Minority religion|religious minority]]), sexual orientation ([[sexual minority]]), or [[disability]].<ref name="Unnamed_3-20240416095643"/> The framework of [[intersectionality]] can be used to recognize that an individual may simultaneously hold membership in multiple minority groups (e.g. both a racial and religious minority).<ref name="Unnamed_4-20240416095643"/> Likewise, individuals may also be part of a minority group in regard to some characteristics, but part of a dominant group in regard to others.<ref name=":4"/>
-The term "minority group" often occurs within the [[discourse]] of [[civil rights]] and [[collective rights]], as members of minority groups are prone to differential treatment in the countries and societies in which they live.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/louilr63&div=34&id=&page=|title=The Struggle for Civil Rights: The Need for, and Impediments to, Political Coalitions among and within Minority Groups|last=Johnson|first=Kevin|journal=Louisiana Law Review|volume=63|page=759|access-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215102813/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals%2Flouilr63&div=34&id=&page=|archive-date=2019-02-15|url-status=live}}</ref> Minority group members often face [[discrimination]] in multiple areas of social life, including housing, employment, healthcare, and education, among others.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The economics of discrimination|last=Becker|first=Gary S.|date=1971|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226041049|edition= 2nd|location=Chicago|oclc=658199810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=David R.|date=1999|title=Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health The Added Effects of Racism and Discrimination|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=896|issue=1|pages=173–188|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x|pmid=10681897|bibcode=1999NYASA.896..173W|issn=0077-8923|hdl=2027.42/71908|s2cid=26852165|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/71908/1/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x.pdf|access-date=2019-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126203618/http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/71908/1/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x.pdf|archive-date=2012-01-26|url-status=live|hdl-access=free}}</ref>  While discrimination may be committed by individuals, it may also occur through [[Structural inequality|structural inequalities]], in which rights and opportunities are not equally accessible to all.<ref>{{Cite journal|author-link1=Mieke Verloo|last=Verloo|first=Mieke|date=2006|title=Multiple Inequalities, Intersectionality and the European Union|journal=European Journal of Women's Studies|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=211–228|doi=10.1177/1350506806065753|s2cid=21752012|issn=1350-5068|url=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/22512|access-date=2018-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210152558/https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/22512|archive-date=2019-02-10|url-status=live|hdl=2066/46605|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Those in favour of [[minority rights]] often pursue laws designed to protect minority groups from discrimination and afford members of the minority group equal social status and legal protections as held by members of the dominant group.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The minority rights revolution|last=Skrentny|first=John David|date=2002|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674043732|location=Cambridge, Mass.|oclc=431342257}}</ref>
+The term "minority group" often occurs within the [[discourse]] of [[civil rights]] and [[collective rights]], as members of minority groups are prone to differential treatment in the countries and societies in which they live.<ref name="Unnamed_5-20240416095643"/> Minority group members often face [[discrimination]] in multiple areas of social life, including housing, employment, healthcare, and education, among others.<ref name="Unnamed_6-20240416095643"/><ref name="Unnamed_7-20240416095643"/>  While discrimination may be committed by individuals, it may also occur through [[Structural inequality|structural inequalities]], in which rights and opportunities are not equally accessible to all.<ref name="Unnamed_8-20240416095643"/> Those in favour of [[minority rights]] often pursue laws designed to protect minority groups from discrimination and afford members of the minority group equal social status and legal protections as held by members of the dominant group.<ref name="Unnamed_9-20240416095643"/>
 == Definitions ==
@@ Layi na 159 / Layi na 159 @@
 === Sociological ===
-[[Louis Wirth]] defined a minority group as "a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the [[society]] in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination".<ref name=":3"/> The definition includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively [[Ascribed status|ascribed]] by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioral characteristics; it is also subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the basis of group identity or [[Social solidarity|solidarity]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/12323228|title=Minorities in the new world: six case studies|last1=Wagley|first1=Charles|last2=Harris|first2=Marvin|date=1958|publisher=New York: Columbia University Press|language=en}}</ref> Thus, minority group status is categorical: an individual who exhibits the physical or behavioral characteristics of a given minority group is accorded the status of that group and is subject to the same treatment as other members of that group.<ref name=":3" />
+[[Louis Wirth]] defined a minority group as "a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the [[society]] in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination".<ref name=":3"/> The definition includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively [[Ascribed status|ascribed]] by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioral characteristics; it is also subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the basis of group identity or [[Social solidarity|solidarity]].<ref name="Unnamed_10-20240416095643"/> Thus, minority group status is categorical: an individual who exhibits the physical or behavioral characteristics of a given minority group is accorded the status of that group and is subject to the same treatment as other members of that group.<ref name=":3" />
-[[Joe Feagin]], states that a minority group has five characteristics: (1) suffering discrimination and subordination, (2) physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved by the dominant group, (3) a shared sense of collective identity and common burdens, (4) socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority status, and (5) tendency to marry within the group.<ref>{{cite book|title=Racial and Ethnic Relations|author=Joe R. Feagin|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1984|isbn=978-0-13-750125-0|edition= 2nd|pages=10}}</ref>
+[[Joe Feagin]], states that a minority group has five characteristics: (1) suffering discrimination and subordination, (2) physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved by the dominant group, (3) a shared sense of collective identity and common burdens, (4) socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority status, and (5) tendency to marry within the group.<ref name="Unnamed_11-20240416095643"/>
 ==== Criticisms ====
-There is a controversy with the use of the word minority, as it has a generic and an academic usage.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cultural Diversity Glossary of Terms|publisher=Diversity Training University International Publications Division|year=2008|pages=4}}</ref> Common usage of the term indicates a statistical minority; however, academics refer to power differences among groups rather than differences in population size among groups.<ref name="Barzilai 20102"/>
+There is a controversy with the use of the word minority, as it has a generic and an academic usage.<ref name="Unnamed_12-20240416095643"/> Common usage of the term indicates a statistical minority; however, academics refer to power differences among groups rather than differences in population size among groups.<ref name="Barzilai 20102"/>
 The above criticism is based on the idea that a group can be considered a minority even if it includes such a large number of people that it is numerically not a minority in society.
-Some sociologists have criticized the concept of "minority/majority", arguing this language excludes or neglects changing or unstable cultural identities, as well as cultural affiliations across national boundaries.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Laurie|first1=Timothy|title=The Concept of Minority for the Study of Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/31725889|journal=Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies|volume=31|issue=1|pages=1–12|year=2017|last2=Khan|first2=Rimi|doi=10.1080/10304312.2016.1264110|s2cid=152009904}}</ref> As such, the term historically excluded groups (HEGs) is often similarly used to highlight the role of historical oppression and domination, and how this results in the under-representation of particular groups in various areas of social life.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Konrad|first1=Alison M.|date=1999|work=Handbook of Gender & Work|pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofgender0000unse/page/429 429–452]|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|doi=10.4135/9781452231365.n22|last2=Linnehan|first2=Frank|title=Handbook of Gender & Work Handbook of gender & work|isbn=9780761913559|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofgender0000unse/page/429}}</ref>
+Some sociologists have criticized the concept of "minority/majority", arguing this language excludes or neglects changing or unstable cultural identities, as well as cultural affiliations across national boundaries.<ref name="Unnamed_13-20240416095643"/> As such, the term historically excluded groups (HEGs) is often similarly used to highlight the role of historical oppression and domination, and how this results in the under-representation of particular groups in various areas of social life.<ref name="Unnamed_14-20240416095643"/>
 === Political ===
-The term national minority is often used to discuss minority groups in international and national politics.<ref name=":5"/> All countries contain some degree of racial, ethnic, or linguistic diversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|title=The most (and least) culturally diverse countries in the world|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811213739/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|archive-date=2019-08-11|access-date=2019-11-01}}</ref> In addition, minorities may also be immigrant, indigenous or landless nomadic communities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The representation of minorities and indigenous peoples in parliament : a global overview|first=Oleh|last=Protsyk|date=2010|publisher=Inter-parliamentary Union|others=Inter-parliamentary Union.627|location=Geneva|oclc=754152959}}</ref> This often results in variations in language, culture, beliefs, practices, that set some groups apart from the dominant group. As these differences are usually perceived negatively, this results in loss of social and political power for members of minority groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Verkuyten|first=Maykel|date=2005|title=Ethnic Group Identification and Group Evaluation Among Minority and Majority Groups: Testing the Multiculturalism Hypothesis|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=88|issue=1|pages=121–138|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.121|pmid=15631579|issn=1939-1315|citeseerx=10.1.1.595.7633}}</ref>
+The term national minority is often used to discuss minority groups in international and national politics.<ref name=":5"/> All countries contain some degree of racial, ethnic, or linguistic diversity.<ref name="Unnamed_15-20240416095643"/> In addition, minorities may also be immigrant, indigenous or landless nomadic communities.<ref name="Unnamed_16-20240416095643"/> This often results in variations in language, culture, beliefs, practices, that set some groups apart from the dominant group. As these differences are usually perceived negatively, this results in loss of social and political power for members of minority groups.<ref name="Unnamed_17-20240416095643"/>
-There is no legal definition of national minorities in international law, though protection of minority groups is outlined by the United Nations [[Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities]]. [[International criminal law]] can protect the rights of racial or ethnic minorities in several ways.<ref>[[Lyal Sunga|Lyal S. Sunga]] (2004). ''International Criminal Law: Protection of Minority Rights, Beyond a One-Dimensional State: An Emerging Right to Autonomy?'' ed. Zelim Skurbaty. (2004) 255–275.</ref> The right to [[self-determination]] is a key issue. The Council of Europe regulates minority rights in the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] and the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]].
+There is no legal definition of national minorities in international law, though protection of minority groups is outlined by the United Nations [[Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities]]. [[International criminal law]] can protect the rights of racial or ethnic minorities in several ways.<ref name="Unnamed_18-20240416095643"/> The right to [[self-determination]] is a key issue. The Council of Europe regulates minority rights in the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] and the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]].
-In some places, subordinate [[ethnic group]]s may constitute a numerical majority, such as Blacks in [[South Africa under apartheid]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=du Toit|first1=Pierre|last2=Theron|first2=François|date=1988|title=Ethnic and minority groups, and constitutional change in South Africa|journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies|language=en|volume=7|issue=1–2|pages=133–147|doi=10.1080/02589008808729481|issn=0258-9001}}</ref> In the [[United States]], for example, non-Hispanic Whites constitute the majority (63.4%) and all other racial and ethnic groups ([[Mexican Americans|Mexican]], [[African Americans]], [[Asian Americans]], [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]], and [[Native Hawaiians]]) are classified as "minorities".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045217|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States|website=Census Bureau QuickFacts|language=en-US|access-date=2018-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816204719/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045217|archive-date=2018-08-16|url-status=live}}</ref> If the non-Hispanic White population falls below 50% the group will only be the ''plurality'', not the majority.
+In some places, subordinate [[ethnic group]]s may constitute a numerical majority, such as Blacks in [[South Africa under apartheid]].<ref name="Unnamed_19-20240416095643"/> In the [[United States]], for example, non-Hispanic Whites constitute the majority (63.4%) and all other racial and ethnic groups ([[Mexican Americans|Mexican]], [[African Americans]], [[Asian Americans]], [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]], and [[Native Hawaiians]]) are classified as "minorities".<ref name="Unnamed_20-20240416095643"/> If the non-Hispanic White population falls below 50% the group will only be the ''plurality'', not the majority.
 == Examples==
 ===Racial and ethnic minorities===
-Racial minorities, sometimes referred to synonymously as [[people of color]] or non-white people, are minority groups that are discriminated against on the basis of [[race (human categorization)|race]]. Though definitions vary cross-culturally, modern racism is primarily based on the [[Historical race concepts|European and American classifications of race]] that developed during the [[Age of Exploration]], as European countries sought to categorize the nations they colonized into [[scientific racism|pseudo-scientific]] [[phenotypical]] groups.<ref name=Foundations/> In the United States's system, [[Whiteness theory|whiteness]] is at the top of a hierarchy that automatically classifies [[mixed-race]] individuals as [[hypodescent|their subordinate race]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/janicegassam/2022/02/22/the-evolution-of-whiteness-in-the-united-states/?sh=665fc1a87626|title=The Evolution Of Whiteness In The United States|website=[[Forbes]] }}</ref>
+Racial minorities, sometimes referred to synonymously as [[people of color]] or non-white people, are minority groups that are discriminated against on the basis of [[race (human categorization)|race]]. Though definitions vary cross-culturally, modern racism is primarily based on the [[Historical race concepts|European and American classifications of race]] that developed during the [[Age of Exploration]], as European countries sought to categorize the nations they colonized into [[scientific racism|pseudo-scientific]] [[phenotypical]] groups.<ref name=Foundations/> In the United States's system, [[Whiteness theory|whiteness]] is at the top of a hierarchy that automatically classifies [[mixed-race]] individuals as [[hypodescent|their subordinate race]].<ref name="Unnamed_21-20240416095643"/>
-Sometimes, racist policies explicitly codified pseudo-scientific definitions of race: such as the United States' [[one-drop rule]] and [[blood quantum laws]], South Africa's [[apartheid]], and Nazi Germany [[Nuremberg race laws]]. Other times, race has been a matter of self-identification, with [[de facto]] racist policies implemented.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://political-science.iresearchnet.com/race-ethnicity-and-politics/|title=Race, Ethnicity, and Politics|quote=In lieu of de jure segregation, various manifestations of de facto segregation persist to this day ... In contrast to de jure segregation, de facto segregation occurs as a result of social practices that, although not codified in law, have a similar outcome in terms of maintaining the separation of a minority group from the majority group.}}</ref> In addition to governmental policy, racism may persist as social prejudice and discrimination.
+Sometimes, racist policies explicitly codified pseudo-scientific definitions of race: such as the United States' [[one-drop rule]] and [[blood quantum laws]], South Africa's [[apartheid]], and Nazi Germany [[Nuremberg race laws]]. Other times, race has been a matter of self-identification, with [[de facto]] racist policies implemented.<ref name="Unnamed_22-20240416095643"/> In addition to governmental policy, racism may persist as social prejudice and discrimination.
-There are also social groups that are usually identified through [[ethnicity]].<ref name="Foundations"/> Like race, ethnicity is largely determined [[cultural heritage|hereditarily]]. However, it can also be influenced by factors such as [[adoption]], [[cultural assimilation]], [[religious conversion]], and [[language shift]]. As race and ethnicity often overlap,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/difference-between-race-ethnicity.html|title=What's the difference between race and ethnicity?|website=[[Live Science]] |date=3 November 2022 }}</ref> many ethnic minorities are also racial minorities. However, this is not always the case, and some people are ethnic minorities while also being classified as white, such as some [[Jews]], [[Romani people|Roma]], and [[Sámi]]. In some cases, their ethnic identities have been seen as negating their whiteness, in both [[Intergroup relations|inter-]] and [[social group|intra-]]group identification.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jewishjournal.com/cover_story/295918/were-jews-were-not-white-we-define-ourselves/|title=We're Jews, We're Not White, We Define Ourselves |date=27 March 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2018/10/19/i-look-white-my-mother-is-native-american-my-identity-is-more-than-my-dna/|title=My mother is Native American, but I look white. My identity is more than my DNA.|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] }}</ref>
+There are also social groups that are usually identified through [[ethnicity]].<ref name="Foundations"/> Like race, ethnicity is largely determined [[cultural heritage|hereditarily]]. However, it can also be influenced by factors such as [[adoption]], [[cultural assimilation]], [[religious conversion]], and [[language shift]]. As race and ethnicity often overlap,<ref name="Unnamed_23-20240416095643"/> many ethnic minorities are also racial minorities. However, this is not always the case, and some people are ethnic minorities while also being classified as white, such as some [[Jews]], [[Romani people|Roma]], and [[Sámi]]. In some cases, their ethnic identities have been seen as negating their whiteness, in both [[Intergroup relations|inter-]] and [[social group|intra-]]group identification.<ref name="Unnamed_24-20240416095643"/><ref name="Unnamed_25-20240416095643"/>
-In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, there is a preference to categorise people by ethnicity instead of race.<ref name="gov uk"/> Ethnicity encompasses a mix of "long shared cultural experiences, religious practices, traditions, ancestry, language, dialect or national origins".<ref>{{cite web |title=A guide to race and ethnicity terminology and language |url=https://www.lawsociety.org.uk/topics/ethnic-minority-lawyers/a-guide-to-race-and-ethnicity-terminology-and-language |website=www.lawsociety.org.uk |publisher=The Law Society |access-date=17 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The United Kingdom considers everyone but [[white British]] people to be an ethnic minority, including other white Europeans such as [[White Irish]] people (excluding in Northern Ireland).<ref name="gov uk" />
+In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, there is a preference to categorise people by ethnicity instead of race.<ref name="gov uk"/> Ethnicity encompasses a mix of "long shared cultural experiences, religious practices, traditions, ancestry, language, dialect or national origins".<ref name="Unnamed_26-20240416095643"/> The United Kingdom considers everyone but [[white British]] people to be an ethnic minority, including other white Europeans such as [[White Irish]] people (excluding in Northern Ireland).<ref name="gov uk" />
 === National minorities ===
-A national minority is a social group within a state that differs from the majority and/or dominant population in terms of ethnicity, language, culture, or religion, but also it also tends to have a close link with a specific territory from which the minority social group originates.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date= |title=United Nations Guide for Minorities |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/minorities/united-nations-guide-minorities |website=www.ohchr.org/en/ohchr_homepage}}</ref>
+A national minority is a social group within a state that differs from the majority and/or dominant population in terms of ethnicity, language, culture, or religion, but also it also tends to have a close link with a specific territory from which the minority social group originates.<ref name="Unnamed_27-20240416095643"/>
 === Involuntary minorities ===
@@ Layi na 206 / Layi na 206 @@
 === Disabled people ===
 {{Unreferenced section|date=January 2020}}
-Leading up to the [[Human Rights Act 1998]] in the UK, a rise in the awareness relating to how disabled people were being treated began. Many started to believe that they were being denied basic human rights. This act had a section that stated if authorities did not protect people with learning disabilities from others' actions, such as harm or neglect, then they could be prosecuted.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Clements|first1=Luke|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1t8964p|title=Disabled people and European human rights: A review of the implications of the 1998 Human Rights Act for disabled children and adults in the UK|last2=Read|first2=Janet|date=2003|publisher=Bristol University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1t8964p |jstor=j.ctt1t8964p|s2cid=246084235 |edition=1}}</ref>
+Leading up to the [[Human Rights Act 1998]] in the UK, a rise in the awareness relating to how disabled people were being treated began. Many started to believe that they were being denied basic human rights. This act had a section that stated if authorities did not protect people with learning disabilities from others' actions, such as harm or neglect, then they could be prosecuted.<ref name="Unnamed_28-20240416095643"/>
 The [[disability rights movement]] has contributed to an understanding of disabled people as a minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvantaged by society, not just as people who are disadvantaged by their impairments. Advocates of disability rights emphasize the difference in physical or psychological functioning rather than inferiority. For example, some [[autistic]] people argue for acceptance of [[neurodiversity]], much as opponents of [[racism]] argue for acceptance of ethnic diversity. The [[deaf community]] is often regarded as a linguistic and cultural minority rather than a group with disabilities, and some [[deaf]] people do not see themselves as having a disability at all. Rather, they are disadvantaged by technologies and social institutions designed to cater to the dominant group. (''See the [[Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]]''.)
@@ Layi na 212 / Layi na 212 @@
 === Religious minorities ===
 {{main|Minority religion}}
-People belonging to religious minorities have a faith that is different from that held by the majority. Most countries of the world have religious minorities. It is now widely accepted in [[Western world|the West]] that people should have the freedom to choose their religion,{{source?|date=July 2023}} including the right to convert from one religion to another, or not to have any religion ([[atheism]] and/or [[agnosticism]]). However, in many countries, this freedom is constricted. In [[Egypt]], a new system of identity cards<ref>See "The Situation of the Bahá'í Community of Egypt" and "Religion Today: Bahais' struggle for recognition reveals a less tolerant face of Egypt", [http://www.bahai.org/persecution/egypt/update Bahai.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001140937/http://www.bahai.org/persecution/egypt/update |date=2006-10-01 }},  [http://dwb.sacbee.com/24hour/religion/story/3315375p-12212722c.html DWB.sacbee.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014053747/http://dwb.sacbee.com/24hour/religion/story/3315375p-12212722c.html |date=2007-10-14 }}</ref> requires all citizens to state their religion—and the only choices are [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], or [[Judaism]] (See [[Egyptian identification card controversy]]). Another example is the case of decreasing population of [[minorities in Pakistan]], where they are being forcefully converted or killed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/another-hindu-girl-abducted-forcibly-converted-to-islam-in-pakistans-sindh-family-stages-protest/494399|title=Another Hindu girl abducted, forcibly converted to Islam in Pakistan's Sindh; family stages protest|website=www.timesnownews.com|date=24 September 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925100901/https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/another-hindu-girl-abducted-forcibly-converted-to-islam-in-pakistans-sindh-family-stages-protest/494399|archive-date=2019-09-25|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/hindu-medical-student-found-dead-in-pakistan-hostel-brother-alleges-foul-play/story-GeJuS3xpHigO3IFhBFvvCJ.html|title=Hindu medical student found dead in Pakistan hostel, brother alleges foul play|date=2019-09-17|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2019-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925100903/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/hindu-medical-student-found-dead-in-pakistan-hostel-brother-alleges-foul-play/story-GeJuS3xpHigO3IFhBFvvCJ.html|archive-date=2019-09-25|url-status=live}}</ref>
+People belonging to religious minorities have a faith that is different from that held by the majority. Most countries of the world have religious minorities. It is now widely accepted in [[Western world|the West]] that people should have the freedom to choose their religion,{{source?|date=July 2023}} including the right to convert from one religion to another, or not to have any religion ([[atheism]] and/or [[agnosticism]]). However, in many countries, this freedom is constricted. In [[Egypt]], a new system of identity cards<ref name="Unnamed_29-20240416095643"/> requires all citizens to state their religion—and the only choices are [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], or [[Judaism]] (See [[Egyptian identification card controversy]]). Another example is the case of decreasing population of [[minorities in Pakistan]], where they are being forcefully converted or killed.<ref name="Unnamed_30-20240416095643"/><ref name="Unnamed_31-20240416095643"/>
 === Women as a disadvantaged group ===
-In most societies, numbers of men and women [[sex ratio|are roughly equal]]. Though women are not considered to be a minority,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/minority |website=Merriam-Webster |access-date=6 February 2020|title=Definition of Minority}}</ref> the status of women, as a subordinate group, has led to many social scientists to refer to them as a disadvantaged group.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hacker|first=Helen Mayer|year=1951|title=Women as a Minority Group|journal=[[Social Forces]]|volume=30|issue=1|pages=60–69|doi=10.2307/2571742|jstor=2571742}}</ref> Though women's legal rights and status vary widely across countries, women often experience social inequalities, relative to men, in various societies.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Multicultural jurisdictions : cultural differences and women's rights|author=Shachar, Ayelet|date=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0511040801|location=Cambridge, UK|oclc=56216656}}</ref> Women are sometimes denied access to education and access to the same opportunities as men, especially in under-developed countries.<ref>Women, U. N. (2018). Annual Report 2017–2018.</ref>
+In most societies, numbers of men and women [[sex ratio|are roughly equal]]. Though women are not considered to be a minority,<ref name="Unnamed_32-20240416095643"/> the status of women, as a subordinate group, has led to many social scientists to refer to them as a disadvantaged group.<ref name="Unnamed_33-20240416095643"/> Though women's legal rights and status vary widely across countries, women often experience social inequalities, relative to men, in various societies.<ref name="Unnamed_34-20240416095643"/> Women are sometimes denied access to education and access to the same opportunities as men, especially in under-developed countries.<ref name="Unnamed_35-20240416095643"/>
 == Law and government ==
@@ Layi na 224 / Layi na 224 @@
 Many contemporary governments prefer to assume the people they rule all belong to the same nationality rather than separate ones based on ethnicity. The United States asks for [[race (U.S. Census)|race and ethnicity]] on its official census forms, which thus breaks up and organizes its population into sub-groups, primarily racial rather than national. [[Spain]] does not divide its nationals by ethnic group or national minorities, although it does maintain an official notion of minority languages, that is one of the criteria for to determine a national minority, upon the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]].
-Some especially significant or powerful minorities receive comprehensive protection and political representation. For example, the former Yugoslav Republic of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] recognizes the three constitutive nations, none of which constitutes a numerical majority (see [[nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]). However, other minorities such as [[Romani people|Roma]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00421|title=Political recognition of Roma People in Spain. [Social Impact]. WORKALÓ. The creation of new occupational patterns for cultural minorities: the Gypsy Case (2001–2004). Framework Programme 5 (FP5)|website=SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905191302/http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00421|archive-date=2017-09-05|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Jews]], are officially labelled "foreign" and are excluded from many of these protections. For example, they may be excluded from political positions, including the presidency.<ref>[http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/minorities/2._framework_convention_(monitoring)/2._monitoring_mechanism/4._opinions_of_the_advisory_committee/1._country_specific_opinions/1._first_cycle/PDF_1st_OP_BiH.pdf Opinion of the Council of Europe's Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, in particular paragraphs 37–43] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616100431/http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/minorities/2._framework_convention_(monitoring)/2._monitoring_mechanism/4._opinions_of_the_advisory_committee/1._country_specific_opinions/1._first_cycle/PDF_1st_OP_BiH.pdf |date=2007-06-16 }}</ref>
+Some especially significant or powerful minorities receive comprehensive protection and political representation. For example, the former Yugoslav Republic of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] recognizes the three constitutive nations, none of which constitutes a numerical majority (see [[nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]). However, other minorities such as [[Romani people|Roma]]<ref name="Unnamed_36-20240416095643"/> and [[Jews]], are officially labelled "foreign" and are excluded from many of these protections. For example, they may be excluded from political positions, including the presidency.<ref name="Unnamed_37-20240416095643"/>
-There is debate over recognizing minority groups and their privileges. One view<ref>For example, J.A. Lindgren-Alves, member of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, speaking at the Committee's 67th Session (Summary Record of the 1724th Meeting, 23 August 2005, CERD/C/SR.1724)</ref> is that the application of special rights to minority groups may harm some countries, such as new states in Africa or Latin America not founded on the European [[nation-state]] model, since minority recognition may interfere with establishing a national identity. It may hamper the integration of the minority into mainstream society, perhaps leading to [[separatism]] or [[supremacist|supremacism]]. In [[Canada]], some{{who|date=January 2012}} feel that the failure of the dominant [[English language|English]]-speaking majority to integrate [[French Canadians]] has provoked [[Quebec separatism]].
+There is debate over recognizing minority groups and their privileges. One view<ref name="Unnamed_38-20240416095643"/> is that the application of special rights to minority groups may harm some countries, such as new states in Africa or Latin America not founded on the European [[nation-state]] model, since minority recognition may interfere with establishing a national identity. It may hamper the integration of the minority into mainstream society, perhaps leading to [[separatism]] or [[supremacist|supremacism]]. In [[Canada]], some{{who|date=January 2012}} feel that the failure of the dominant [[English language|English]]-speaking majority to integrate [[French Canadians]] has provoked [[Quebec separatism]].
-Others assert that minorities require specific protections to ensure that they are not marginalized: for example, [[bilingual education]] may be needed to allow linguistic minorities to fully integrate into the school system and compete equally in society. In this view, rights for minorities strengthen the nation-building project, as members of minorities see their interests well served, and willingly accept the legitimacy of the nation and their integration (not assimilation) within it.<ref>See {{cite book |first=K. |last=Henrard |title=Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights and the Right to Self-Determination |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |year=2000 |pages=218–224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QFF5nzuAze0C&pg=PA218 |isbn=978-9041113597 |access-date=2017-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228001145/https://books.google.com/books?id=QFF5nzuAze0C&pg=PA218 |archive-date=2017-02-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+Others assert that minorities require specific protections to ensure that they are not marginalized: for example, [[bilingual education]] may be needed to allow linguistic minorities to fully integrate into the school system and compete equally in society. In this view, rights for minorities strengthen the nation-building project, as members of minorities see their interests well served, and willingly accept the legitimacy of the nation and their integration (not assimilation) within it.<ref name="Unnamed_39-20240416095643"/>
 == See also ==