Jump to content

Abinci vs. man fetur

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Abinci vs. man fetur
Masara vs samar da Ethanol a Amurka Masara da aka yi amfani da ita don man fetur na Ethanol (bushel) (hagu).   
Kamfanin gyara abinci

Abinci da man fetur shine matsala game da haɗarin karkatar da gonaki ko amfanin gona don samar da man fetus don lalata samar da abinci. Tattaunawar Farashin abinci da abinci sun haɗa da ra'ayoyi masu yawa kuma suna da dogon lokaci, masu rikitarwa a cikin wallafe-wallafen.[1] Akwai rashin jituwa game da muhimmancin batun, abin da ke haifar da shi, da abin da za a iya ko ya kamata a yi don magance halin da ake ciki. Wannan rikitarwa da rashin tabbas sun kasance ne saboda yawan tasirin da kuma ra'ayoyin da zasu iya shafar tsarin farashi. Bugu da ƙari, ƙarfin dangi na waɗannan tasirin masu kyau da marasa kyau sun bambanta a cikin gajeren lokaci da dogon lokaci, kuma sun haɗa da sakamako mai jinkiri. Har ila yau, bangaren ilimi na muhawara ya ɓace ta hanyar amfani da samfuran tattalin arziki daban-daban da kuma nau'ikan gasa na nazarin kididdiga.[2]

Fitar da man fetur ya karu a cikin 'yan shekarun nan. Wasu kayayyaki, kamar masara (masara), sukari ko man kayan lambu ana iya amfani da su ko dai a matsayin abinci, abinci, ko don yin man fetur. Misali, tun daga shekara ta 2006, wani ɓangare na ƙasar da aka yi amfani da shi a baya don shuka amfanin gona a Amurka yanzu ana amfani da shi don shuka masara don man fetur, kuma an ƙaddara babban rabo na masara don samar da ethanol, ya kai 25% a shekara ta 2007. Farashin mai yana ƙaruwa tun shekara ta 2003, sha'awar rage dogaro da mai, da kuma buƙatar rage hayakin gas daga sufuri sun haɗu da ƙara buƙatun duniya don man fetur. Ƙarin buƙatu yana inganta dawowar kuɗi akan samarwa, yana sa man fetur ya fi riba da kyau fiye da samar da abinci. Wannan, bi da bi, yana haifar da ƙarin kayan aiki don samar da man fetur, tare da rage albarkatun da aka sanya don samar da abinci. Batutuwan Tsaro na abinci na duniya na iya haifar da irin wannan matsalar tattalin arziki zuwa samar da abinci mai yawa. Akwai, ban da haka, yiwuwar lalata wuraren zama tare da karuwar matsin lamba don canza amfani da ƙasa zuwa noma, don samar da man fetur.[3] Kungiyoyin muhalli sun nuna damuwa game da waɗannan yiwuwar lalacewa na wasu shekaru, [4] [5] amma batutuwan sun jawo hankali sosai a duk duniya saboda Rikicin farashin abinci na duniya na 2007-2008.[6][7]

Biofuels na ƙarni na biyu na iya samar da mafita ga waɗannan mummunan sakamako. Misali, suna iya ba da izinin haɗin noma don abinci da man fetur, kuma ana iya samar da wutar lantarki a lokaci guda. Wannan na iya zama mai fa'ida musamman ga kasashe masu tasowa da yankunan karkara a kasashe masu ci gaba.[8] Wasu bincike sun nuna cewa ana iya kara yawan samar da man fetur ba tare da buƙatar ƙara girman ƙasa ba.[9][10][11]

Biofuels ba sabon abu ba ne. Kafin masana'antu, dawakai sune tushen farko (kuma mai yiwuwa na biyu) na wutar lantarki don sufuri da aikin jiki, suna buƙatar abinci. Girman amfanin gona ga dawakai (yawanci oats) don aiwatar da aikin jiki yayi daidai da girma na amfanin gona don man fetur da aka yi amfani da shi a cikin injuna. Koyaya, amfanin gona na "biofuel" na farko na masana'antu sun kasance a ƙarami.

An yi la'akari da Brazil da samun tattalin arzikin man fetur mai ɗorewa na farko a duniya, gwamnatinta ta yi iƙirarin masana'antar ethanol ta sukari ta Brazil ba ta ba da gudummawa ga rikicin abinci na 2008 ba. Wani takarda na bincike na manufofin Bankin Duniya da aka fitar a watan Yulin 2008 ya kammala cewa "babban karuwa a cikin samar da man fetur a Amurka da Turai sune babban dalilin da ya sa farashin abinci na duniya ya karu" kuma ya bayyana cewa "ethanol na sukari na Brazil bai tura farashin abinci da ya fi girma ba. [12] Koyaya, binciken da Bankin Duniya ya yi a shekara ta 2010 ya kammala cewa binciken da suka gabata na iya ƙididdige gudummawar samar da man fetur, kamar yadda "sakamakon man fetur a kan farashin abinci bai kasance babba kamar yadda aka yi tunanin da farko ba, amma amfani da kayayyaki ta masu saka hannun jari na kudi (abin da ake kira "financialization of kayayyaki") na iya kasancewa wani bangare ne na alhakin karuwar 2007/08. Wani binciken mai zaman kansa na OECD ya kuma gano cewa tasirin man fetur akan farashin abinci ya fi karami.[13][14]

Farashin farashin abinci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Daga 1974 zuwa 2005, farashin abinci na ainihi (wanda aka daidaita don hauhawar farashi) ya ragu da kashi 75%. Farashin kayan abinci sun kasance masu tsayayya bayan sun kai ƙasa a cikin 2000 da 2001.[12] Sabili da haka, ana ɗaukar ƙaruwar farashin abinci na baya-bayan nan a matsayin mai ban mamaki. Wani takarda na bincike na manufofin Bankin Duniya da aka buga a watan Yulin 2008 ya gano cewa karuwar farashin kayan abinci ya jagoranci hatsi, tare da karuwar farashi a shekara ta 2005 duk da amfanin gona a duk duniya. Daga Janairu 2005 har zuwa Yuni 2008, farashin masara kusan ya ninka sau uku, alkama ya karu da kashi 127, kuma shinkafa ya karu da kaso 170. Haɓakawar Farashin hatsi ya biyo bayan ƙaruwar Farashin mai da mai a tsakiyar shekara ta 2006. A gefe guda, binciken ya gano cewa samar da sukari ya karu da sauri, kuma ya isa ya ci gaba da karuwar farashin sukari sai dai a shekara ta 2005 da farkon shekara ta 2006. Takardar ta kammala cewa man fetur da aka samar daga hatsi ya kara farashin abinci tare da wasu abubuwan da suka danganci tsakanin kashi 70 zuwa 75 cikin dari, amma ethanol da aka samar da sukari bai ba da gudummawa sosai ga karuwar farashin kayan abinci na baya-bayan nan ba.[12]

Wani rahoto na kimanta tattalin arziki da OECD ta buga a watan Yulin 2008 [14] ya gano cewa "tasirin manufofin biofuel na yanzu akan farashin amfanin gona na duniya, galibi ta hanyar karuwar buƙatun hatsi da man kayan lambu, yana da mahimmanci amma bai kamata a wuce gona da iri ba. Ana kimanta matakan tallafin biofuel kawai don kara matsakaicin farashin alkama da kusan kashi 5 cikin dari, masara da kusan kashi 7 cikin dari da man fetur da kusan kashi 19 cikin dari a cikin dari a kan shekaru 10 masu zuwa". [15]

Ana amfani da Masara don yin ethanol kuma farashin ya tashi da kashi uku a cikin ƙasa da shekaru 3 (an auna shi a cikin daloli na Amurka). [16]Rahotanni a cikin 2007 sun haɗa labaran da suka bambanta kamar tashin hankali na abinci a Mexico saboda hauhawar farashin masara don tortillas da rage riba a Heineken, babban mai shayarwa na duniya, zuwa karuwar amfani da masara (mai) da aka shuka a Amurka Midwest don samar da ethanol. Game da giya, an yanke yankin sha'ir don kara yawan samar da masara. Ba a amfani da sha'ir a halin yanzu don samar da ethanol.) [17] [18] Alkama ya tashi da kusan kashi 3 a cikin shekaru uku, [19] yayin da soyabees suka tashi da kashi 2 a cikin shekaru biyu (duka an auna su a cikin daloli na Amurka). [5] [20][21]

Kamar yadda ake amfani da masara a matsayin abinci ga dabbobi, farashin masara mafi girma yana haifar da farashi mafi girma ga abincin dabbobi. Ana amfani da Man kayan lambu don yin Biodiesel kuma ya ninka kusan ninki biyu a farashi a cikin shekaru biyu da suka gabata. Farashin yana bin diddigin faRashin mai.[22][23] Rikicin farashin abinci na duniya na 2007-2008 an zarge shi da wani bangare akan karuwar bukatar man fetur.[24] A wannan lokacin, farashi shinkafa ya tashi da kashi 3 duk da cewa ba a amfani da shinkafa kai tsaye a cikin man fetur ba.[25]

USDA na sa ran lokacin alkama na 2008/2009 ya zama amfanin gona mai rikodin kuma 8% ya fi na shekarar da ta gabata. Suna kuma sa ran shinkafa za ta sami amfanin gona mai rikodin. Farashin alkama ya sauka daga sama da $ 12 a kowace bushel a watan Mayu 2008 zuwa karkashin $ 8 / bushel a cikin Mayu.[26] Shinkafa ma ta sauka daga matsayi mai girma.

A cewar wani rahoto na 2008 daga Bankin Duniya, samar da man fetur ya tura farashin abinci sama.[27] Wadannan ra'ayoyin sun sami goyon baya daga Union of Concerned Scientists a cikin takardar labarai ta Satumba 2008, inda suka ce binciken Bankin Duniya "ya saba wa ikirarin Sakataren Aikin Gona na Amurka Ed Schaffer cewa biofuels suna da ƙananan kashi na hauhawar farashin abinci".[28]

According to the October Consumer Price Index released on November 19, 2008, food prices continued to rise in October 2008 and were 6.3 percent higher than in October 2007.

Dalilan da aka gabatar

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ethanol man fetur a matsayin wani oxygenate additive

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bukatar man fetur na ethanol da aka samar daga masara a Amurka ta hanyar gano cewa methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) yana gurɓata ruwan ƙasa.[29] Amfani da MTBE a matsayin kayan aikin Oxygenate ya yadu saboda umarnin gyare-gyaren Dokar Tsabtace Air na 1992 don rage hayakin carbon monoxide. A sakamakon haka, a shekara ta 2006, an dakatar da amfani da MTBE a cikin man fetur a kusan jihohi 20. Har ila yau, akwai damuwa cewa za a iya ɗaukar shari'a mai tsada da tsada a kan masu samar da man fetur na Amurka, kuma yanke shawara ta 2005 da ta ƙi kariya ta doka ga MTBE, ta buɗe sabon kasuwa don man fetur, maye gurbin farko na MTBE.[30] A lokacin da farashin masara ya kasance a kusa da US $ 2 a bushel, masu shuka masara sun fahimci yiwuwar wannan sabon kasuwa kuma sun kawo daidai. Wannan canjin buƙata ya faru ne a lokacin da Farashin mai ya riga ya tashi sosai.

Sauran dalilai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gaskiyar cewa farashin abinci ya tashi a lokaci guda farashin man fetur ya tashi ba abin mamaki ba ne kuma bai kamata a zarge shi gaba ɗaya da man fetur ba. Kudin makamashi babban farashi ne ga taki, noma, da Rarraba abinci. Har ila yau, China da sauran ƙasashe sun sami karuwar gaske a cikin shigo da su yayin da tattalin arzikin su ya girma.[31][32] Shukari yana daya daga cikin manyan kayan abinci na ethanol, kuma farashin sun sauka daga shekaru biyu da suka gabata.[33][34] Wani ɓangare na karuwar farashin abinci don kayan abinci na duniya da aka auna a cikin daloli na Amurka saboda an rage darajar dala.[35] Karewa kuma muhimmiyar mai ba da gudummawa ga karuwar farashi.[36] Kashi 36% na hatsi na duniya yana tafiya a matsayin abinci don ciyar da dabbobi, maimakon mutane.[37]

A tsawon lokaci, karuwar yawan jama'a da Canjin yanayi na iya haifar da farashin abinci ya tashi. Koyaya, waɗannan abubuwan sun kasance a kusa da shekaru da yawa kuma farashin abinci sun tashi a cikin shekaru uku da suka gabata, don haka gudummawarsu ga matsalar yanzu kaɗan ne.

Dokokin gwamnati na kasuwannin abinci da man fetur

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gwamnatocin Faransa, Jamus, Ingila, da Amurka sun goyi bayan biofuels tare da raguwar haraji, amfani da umarni, da tallafi. Wadannan manufofi suna da Sakamakon da ba a yi niyya ba na karkatar da albarkatu daga samar da abinci kuma yana haifar da hauhawar farashin abinci da yiwuwar lalacewar wuraren zama na halitta.[3]

Man fetur don amfani da aikin gona sau da yawa ba shi da harajin man fetur (manoma suna samun man fetur ba tare da haraji ba ko man fetur na diesel). Biofuels na iya samun tallafi [38] da ƙananan / babu harajin man fetur. [39] Biofuels suna gasa tare da farashin man fetur da diesel waɗanda ke da haraji masu yawa. Sakamakon shi ne cewa yana yiwuwa ga manomi ya yi amfani da fiye da galan daya na man fetur don yin galan daya na biofuel kuma har yanzu yana samun riba. Akwai dubban takardun masana da ke nazarin yawan makamashi da ke shiga cikin yin ethanol daga masara da kuma yadda hakan ya kwatanta da makamashi a cikin ethanol.[40]

Wani takarda na bincike na manufofin Bankin Duniya ya kammala cewa farashin abinci ya karu da kashi 35 zuwa 40 cikin dari tsakanin 2002 da 2008, wanda kashi 70 zuwa 75 cikin dari ya danganta da man fetur.[12] Rashin jituwa na shekaru biyar na bincike na "wata-wata" wanda ke karuwa a cikin amfani da hatsi na duniya da fari sun kasance da alhakin karuwar farashi, suna ba da rahoton cewa wannan yana da tasiri kaɗan. Maimakon haka, rahoton ya yi jayayya cewa EU da Amurka suna fitar da man fetur sun sami babban tasiri a kan samar da abinci da farashi, yayin da karuwar samar da man fetir a Amurka da EU ta goyi bayan tallafi da haraji a kan shigo da kayayyaki, kuma suna la'akari da cewa ba tare da waɗannan manufofi ba, karuwar farashi za ta kasance karami. Wannan binciken ya kuma kammala cewa ethanol na sukari na Brazil bai kara farashin sukari sosai ba kuma ya ba da shawarar cire haraji kan shigo da ethanol ta Amurka da EU, don ba da damar samar da ingantattun masu samarwa kamar Brazil da sauran kasashe masu tasowa, gami da kasashe da yawa na Afirka, don samar da ethanol da riba don fitarwa don saduwa da umarnin EU da Amurka.

Wani kimantawa na tattalin arziki da OECD ta buga a watan Yulin 2008 [14] ya yarda da shawarwarin rahoton Bankin Duniya game da mummunan tasirin tallafi da harajin shigo da kayayyaki amma ya gano cewa tasirin da aka kiyasta na man fetur a kan farashin abinci ya fi karami. Binciken OECD ya gano cewa ƙuntatawa na kasuwanci, galibi ta hanyar harajin shigo da kayayyaki, suna kare masana'antar cikin gida daga masu fafatawa na kasashen waje amma suna sanya nauyin farashi ga masu amfani da man fetur na cikin gida da kuma iyakance wasu masu samarwa. Rahoton ya kuma soki iyakancewar hayakin iskar gas da aka samu daga man fetur bisa ga kayan abinci da aka yi amfani da su a Turai da Arewacin Amurka, gano cewa manufofin tallafin man fetur na yanzu zasu rage hayakin isar gas daga man fetir da ba fiye da 0.8% ba ta hanyar 2015, yayin da ethanol na Brazil daga sukari ya rage hayakin gas da akalla 80% idan aka kwatanta da man fetur. Binciken ya bukaci buƙatar ƙarin kasuwanni masu buɗewa a cikin man fetur da kayan abinci don inganta inganci da rage farashi.[15]

Farashin mai yana ƙaruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Karin farashin mai tun daga shekara ta 2003 ya haifar da karuwar bukatar man fetur. Canja man kayan lambu zuwa Biodiesel ba shi da wuyar gaske ko tsada, don haka akwai yanayin da ya dace idan man kayan lambobi ya fi rahusa fiye da diesel. Ana kuma yin Diesel daga man fetur, don haka farashin man kayan lambu yana da alaƙa da farashin man fetur. Manoma na iya canzawa zuwa shuka amfanin gona na man kayan lambu idan waɗannan sun fi riba fiye da amfanin gona. Don haka duk farashin abinci suna da alaƙa da farashin man kayan lambu kuma, bi da bi, da farashin man fetur. Wani binciken Bankin Duniya ya kammala cewa farashin mai da dala mai rauni sun bayyana kashi 25-30% na jimlar hauhawar farashin tsakanin Janairu 2002 har zuwa Yuni 2008. [12]

Bukatar man fetur tana wucewa da wadatar man fetus kuma ana sa ran raguwar man fetur zai haifar da faRashin man fetur ya tashi a cikin shekaru 50 masu zuwa. Farashin man fetur yana ƙara farashin abinci a duk duniya, gami da waɗancan amfanin gona waɗanda ba su da alaƙa da man fetur, kamar shinkafa da kifi.[41]

A cikin Jamus da Kanada, yanzu ya fi rahusa don dumama gida ta hanyar ƙone hatsi fiye da amfani da man fetur da aka samo daga mai.[42][43] Tare da mai a $ 120 a kowace ganga, ajiyar kashi 3 a kan farashin dumama yana yiwuwa. Lokacin da mai ya kasance a $ 25 / ganga babu wani motsawar tattalin arziki don sauyawa zuwa mai dumama mai cin hatsi.

Daga 1971 zuwa 1973, a lokacin Rikicin mai na 1973, farashin masara da alkama sun tashi da kashi 3.[44] Babu wani amfani mai mahimmanci na biofuel a wannan lokacin.

Manufofin gwamnatin Amurka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Some argue that the US government's policy of encouraging ethanol from corn is the main cause of food price increases.[45][46][47] US federal government ethanol subsidies total $7 billion per year, or $1.90 per gallon. Ethanol provides only 55% as much energy as gasoline per gallon, realizing about a $3.45 per gallon gasoline trade off. Corn is used to feed chickens, cows, and pigs, so higher corn prices lead to higher prices for chicken, beef, pork, milk, cheese, etc.

Sanatocin Amurka sun gabatar da Dokar Tsaro ta BioFuels a shekara ta 2006. "Lokaci ya yi da Majalisa za ta fahimci abin da manoma a tsakiyar Amurka suka sani a duk lokacin: cewa muna da iyawa da basira don rage dogaro da man fetur na kasashen waje ta hanyar bunkasa man fetur dinmu", in ji Sanata na Amurka na Illinois Barack Obama.[48]

Kashi biyu bisa uku na Amfani da mai fetur na Amurka saboda bangaren sufuri ne.[49] Dokar 'Yancin Kai da Tsaro ta 2007 tana da tasiri sosai ga Manufofin Makamashi na Amurka.[50] Tare da babban riba na girma masara, da yawa daga cikin manoma suna canzawa zuwa girma masara har sai fa'idar wasu amfanin gona ta dace da na masara. Don haka tallafin ethanol / masara yana haɓaka farashin sauran amfanin gona.

Amurka, muhimmiyar kasar fitarwa don kayan abinci - za ta canza kashi 18% na fitar da hatsi zuwa ethanol a cikin 2008. A duk faɗin Amurka, kashi 25% na dukkan amfanin masara sun tafi ethanol a cikin 2007. Ana sa ran kashi na masara da ke zuwa biofuel zai tashi.

Tun daga shekara ta 2004, an biya tallafin Amurka ga kamfanonin da ke haɗakar man fetur da man fetur na yau da kullun.[51] Ana biyan tallafin man fetur na Turai a lokacin sayarwa.[52] Kamfanoni suna shigo da man fetur zuwa Amurka, hada 1% ko ma 0.1% man fetur na yau da kullun, sannan su tura man fetur da aka gauraya zuwa Turai, inda zai iya samun tallafi na biyu. Wadannan cakuda ana kiransu B99 ko B99.9 man fetur. Ana kiran aikin "splash and dash". Man fetur da aka shigo da shi na iya zuwa daga Turai zuwa Amurka, samun 0.1% na man fetur na yau da kullun, sannan komawa Turai. Don man fetur na B99.9 mai haɗawa na Amurka yana samun tallafin $ 0.999 a kowace galan.[53] Masu samar da biodiesel na Turai sun bukaci EU da ta sanya haraji na azabtarwa a kan waɗannan shigo da kayayyaki.[54] A cikin shekara ta 2007, 'yan majalisa na Amurka suna kallon rufe wannan hanyar.[55][56]

Gishiri a kan samar da man fetur na ƙarni na farko

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Abubuwan da ake tsammani don amfani da man fetur na iya canzawa ta hanyar da ba ta da kyau a cikin 2014. Kungiyoyin kasuwancin man fetur sun roki EPA a watan Agustan 2013 don yin la'akari da rage abubuwan da ke cikin man fetur a cikin man fetura. A ranar 15 ga Nuwamba, 2013, EPA ta Amurka ta ba da sanarwar sake dubawa game da yawan ethanol da ya kamata a buƙaci ta hanyar doka. Matsayin da Dokar 'Yancin Kai da Tsaro ta 2007 ta kafa za a iya canza su sosai. Sanarwar ta ba da damar kwanaki sittin don gabatar da sharhi game da shawarar.[57] Jarida George Monbiot ya yi jayayya game da daskarewa na shekaru 5 a kan man fetur yayin da aka tantance tasirin su a kan al'ummomin matalauta da mahalli.[58][59]

Wani rahoto na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya na 2007 game da man fetur ya kuma tayar da batutuwa game da tsaro na abinci da samar da man fetir. Jean Ziegler, a lokacin mai ba da rahoto na musamman na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan abinci, ya kammala cewa yayin da gardamar da ake yi game da biofuels dangane da ingancin makamashi da canjin yanayi na halal ne, tasirin da ake yi wa masu fama da yunwa na canza alkama da masara zuwa biofuel "babban bala'i ne", kuma irin wannan amfani da ƙasar noma "laifuka ga bil'adama". Ziegler ya kuma yi kira ga dakatar da shekaru biyar kan samar da man fetur. Sakataren Majalisar Dinkin Duniya Ban Ki-moon ya ki amincewa da shawarar Ziegler na haramtacciyar doka ta shekaru biyar, wanda ya yi kira ga cikakken bita game da manufofi game da man fetur, kuma ya ce "kawai sukar man fetur bazai zama mafita mai kyau ba".

Akwai karin abinci a kasashe masu tasowa da yawa. Misali, yawan alkama na Burtaniya ya kasance kusan tan miliyan 2 a shekara ta 2005.[60] Wannan wadata shi kaɗai zai iya samar da isasshen bioethanol don maye gurbin kusan 2.5% na amfani da man fetur na Burtaniya, ba tare da buƙatar karuwa a cikin noman alkama ko rage yawan abinci ko fitarwa ba. Koyaya, sama da 'yan kashi, za a sami gasa kai tsaye tsakanin samar da man fetur na ƙarni na farko da samar da abinci.[61] Wannan shine daya daga cikin dalilan da ya sa mutane da yawa ke kallon biofuels na ƙarni na biyu kamar yadda yake da mahimmanci.

Amfanin gona da ba na abinci ba don man fetur

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Akwai nau'ikan man fetur daban-daban da kayan abinci daban-daban a gare su, kuma an ba da shawarar cewa kawai amfanin gona da ba abinci ba ne za a yi amfani da su don man fetur. Wannan yana guje wa gasa kai tsaye don kayayyaki kamar masara da man kayan lambu. Koyaya, muddin manoma suna iya samun riba mafi girma ta hanyar sauyawa zuwa biofuels, za su kasance.[62][63] dokar samarwa da buƙata ta yi hasashen cewa idan manoma kaɗan ne ke samar da abinci farashin abinci zai tashi.

Abubuwan da ke cikin ƙarni na biyu suna amfani da albarkatun lignocellulosic kamar ragowar gandun daji (wani lokacin ana kiransu sharar launin ruwan kasa da barasa baƙar fata daga Tsarin Kraft ko Tsarin sulfite). Biofs na ƙarni na uku (biofuel daga algae) suna amfani da tushen albarkatun da ba za a iya ci ba waɗanda za a iya amfani da su don biodiesel da bioethanol.

An daɗe ana gane cewa babban wadataccen kayan aikin gona, kayan lignocellulosic da ake kira "Polymer na halitta", zai zama kyakkyawan tushen kayan don biofuels da sauran kayayyaki da yawa. Ya ƙunshi sukari na lignin da monomer kamar glucose, fructose, arabinose, galactose, da xylose, waɗannan abubuwan suna da mahimmanci a kansu. Har zuwa wannan lokacin a cikin tarihi, akwai wasu hanyoyin da aka saba amfani da su don haɗa cellulose "recalcitrant" don raba ko hydrolyse cikin sassan lignin da sukari, magani tare da; fashewar tururi, ruwa mai mahimmanci, enzymes, acid da alkalines. Duk waɗannan hanyoyin sun haɗa da zafi ko sunadarai, suna da tsada, suna da ƙarancin juyawa kuma suna samar da kayan sharar gida. A cikin 'yan shekarun nan haɓakar "mechanochemistry" ya haifar da amfani da ƙwallon ƙafa da sauran ƙirar ƙwallon don rage cellulose zuwa ƙura mai kyau a gaban wani abu mai haɓaka, bentonite ko yumbu na kaolinite, wanda zai yi amfani da cellulose da sauri kuma tare da ƙarancin makamashi a cikin sukari da lignin mai tsabta. Har yanzu a halin yanzu kawai a matakin matukin jirgi, wannan fasahar da ke da alhakin tana ba da damar cewa duk wani tattalin arzikin noma zai iya kawar da abin da ake buƙata don tsaftace mai don man fetur. Wannan zai zama babban ci gaba a cikin tushen makamashi na carbon kuma yana ba da damar ci gaba da amfani da injunan konewa na ciki a kan babban sikelin.

manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Mike Wilson (8 February 2008). "The Biofuel Smear Campaign". Farm Futures. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 28 April 2008.
  2. ↑ HLPE (June 2013). "Biofuels and food security" (PDF).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Andrew Bounds (10 September 2007). "OECD Warns Against Biofuels Subsidies". Financial Times.
  4. ↑ George Monbiot (23 November 2004). "Feeding Cars, Not People". Monbiot.com. Retrieved 28 April 2008.
  5. ↑ European Environmental Bureau (8 February 2006). "Biofuels no panacea" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2008. Retrieved 28 April 2008.
  6. ↑ Planet Ark (26 September 2005). "Food Security Worries Could Limit China Biofuels". Retrieved 28 April 2008.
  7. ↑ Greenpeace UK (9 May 2007). "Biofuels: green dream or climate change nightmare". Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved 28 April 2008.
  8. ↑ Oliver R. Inderwildi; David A. King (2009). "Quo Vadis Biofuels". Energy & Environmental Science. 2 (4): 343. doi:10.1039/b822951c.
  9. ↑ See for example: the US (DOE and USDA) "Billion Ton Report": "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2008.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) or an EU (Refuel) report "Refuel.eu is for sale!" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 September 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2008.
  10. ↑ "Food and Fuel II - Biofuels will help fight hunger". International Herald Tribune. 6 August 2007. Retrieved 15 April 2008.
  11. ↑ "Response: Lord Oxburgh: Through biofuels we can reap the fruits of our labours". the Guardian. 28 February 2008. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Donald Mitchell (July 2008). "A note on Rising Food Crisis" (PDF). The World Bank. Retrieved 29 July 2008.Policy Research Working Paper No. 4682. Disclaimer: This paper reflects the findings, interpretation, and conclusions of the authors, and do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank
  13. ↑ John Baffes; Tassos Haniotis (July 2010). "Placing the 2006/08 Commodity Price Boom into Perspective" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 9 August 2010. Policy Research Working Paper 5371
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Directorate for Trade; Agriculture, OECD (16 July 2008). "Economic Assessment of Biofuel Support Policies" (PDF). OECD. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2008. Retrieved 1 August 2008. Disclaimer: This work was published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The views expressed and conclusions reached do not necessarily correspond to those of the governments of OECD member countries.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Directorate for Trade; Agriculture, OECD (16 July 2008). "Biofuel policies in OECD countries costly and ineffective, says report". OECD. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
  16. ↑ "Corn Monthly Commodity Futures Price Chart: CBOT". Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  17. ↑ Financial Times, London, 25 February 2007, quoting Jean-François van Boxmeer, chief executive.
  18. ↑ For an explanation of this ripple effect that pushes up not only the price of corn, but also that of other farming products, see this excerpt from a speech by Paul Roberts at the Commonwealth Club of California (video).
  19. ↑ "Wheat Monthly Commodity Futures Price Chart: CBOT". Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  20. ↑ "Soybeans Monthly Commodity Futures Price Chart: CBOT". Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  21. ↑ Why ethanol production will drive world food prices even higher in 2008 | Cleantech.com
  22. ↑ "The other oil shock: Vegetable oil prices soar - International Herald Tribune".
  23. ↑ "Light Crude Oil (Pit) Monthly Commodity Futures Price Chart: NYMEX". Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  24. ↑ "Biofuel: the burning question". The Independent. 14 April 2008. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  25. ↑ Frederik Balfour. "Understanding the Global Rice Crisis". Businessweek.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  26. ↑ "Wheat Daily Commodity Futures Price Chart: Dec. 2015: CBOT". Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  27. ↑ "World Bank Document" (PDF).
  28. ↑ "FEED - September 2008 | Union of Concerned Scientists". Archived from the original on 27 October 2008. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
  29. ↑ "Eliminating MTBE in Gasoline in 2006" (PDF). Environmental Information Administration. 22 February 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 August 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2008.
  30. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Ethanol
  31. ↑ "'Weak correlation' between food and fuel prices Farm and Ranch Guide: Regional News".[permanent dead link]
  32. ↑ "It's not food, it's not fuel, it's China: Grain trends in China 1995-2008". Archived from the original on 13 May 2008.
  33. ↑ "Purchasing.com - Making B2B Purchasing Easy". Purchasing. Archived from the original on 28 June 2008. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  34. ↑ "Sugar #11 Monthly Commodity Futures Price Chart: ICE Futures". Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  35. ↑ "Maintenance | Pinr - Local Business Directory". www.pinr.com. Archived from the original on 10 December 2006.
  36. ↑ "Yahoo Finance - Stock Market Live, Quotes, Business & Finance News". finance.yahoo.com.
  37. ↑ "Crop Prospects and Food Situation - Global cereal supply and demand brief". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 21 April 2008.
  38. ↑ Runge, C. Ford; Senauer, Benjamin (28 January 2009). "How Biofuels Could Starve the Poor". Foreign Affairs. 86 (May/June 2007). Archived from the original on 22 February 2008 – via www.foreignaffairs.com.
  39. ↑ "Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center". Archived from the original on 5 February 2008.
  40. ↑ "corn ethanol ("energy gain" OR "energy balance") - Google Scholar". Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  41. ↑ "Print Story - canada.com network". Archived from the original on 2 January 2013. Retrieved 5 June 2021.
  42. ↑ "Energie: Heizen mit Weizen". 21 January 2006. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  43. ↑ "Grain Burning Stoves by Prairie Fire Grain Energy. Renewable Fuel - Virtually No Waste - Low Emissions". Archived from the original on 15 August 2015. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  44. ↑ "Management • farmdoc".
  45. ↑ "Economic analysis: Ethanol policy is driving up food costs 03/16/08 - Grand Island Independent: News". Archived from the original on 23 March 2008. Retrieved 17 March 2008.
  46. ↑ "Ethanol really takes the cake". NJ.com. 16 March 2008. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  47. ↑ "Today in Investor's Business Daily stock analysis and business news".
  48. ↑ Baltimore, Chris. "New U.S. Congress looks to boost alternate fuels", The Boston Globe, 5 January 2007. Retrieved on 23 August 2007
  49. ↑ After the Oil Runs Out, washingtonpost.com
  50. ↑ "Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)". Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2008.
  51. ↑ "Car News - Latest Auto News, First Looks and First Drives". Edmunds. Archived from the original on 1 July 2012. Retrieved 5 June 2021.
  52. ↑ "splash and dash - Search Results - STF - Sustainable Technology Forum". STF - Sustainable Technology Forum. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  53. ↑ "European Biodiesel Board warns on Argentine biodiesel; says fuel is subsidized in Argentina and US, then dumped in Europe: Biofuels Digest". Archived from the original on 22 February 2008.
  54. ↑ "Trade war brewing over US biofuel subsidies « Food Crisis". Archived from the original on 2012-07-08. Retrieved 2024-07-14.
  55. ↑ "home - The Big Biofuels Blog". Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  56. ↑ "Finance panel set to close 'splash and dash' loophole". TheHill. 19 June 2007. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  57. ↑ EPA, US EPA. "2014 Renewable Fuel Standards for Renewable Fuel Standard program (RFS2): Notice of Proposed Rulemaking". Renewable Fuels: Regulations & Standards. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  58. ↑ "An Agricultural Crime Against Humanity". 6 November 2007. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  59. ↑ "Feeding Cars, Not People". 23 November 2004. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  60. ↑ Defra figures after exports, .
  61. ↑ (i.e. if the UK wanted to replace more than around 5% of its fuel with biofuel).
  62. ↑ Food versus fuel debate escalates
  63. ↑ "How Food and Fuel Compete for Land by Lester Brown - The Globalist > > Global Energy". Archived from the original on 12 January 2010.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abinci_vs._man_fetur&oldid=490509"