Jump to content

Ciwon Dajin Dake Haifar da Radiation

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Ciwon Dajin Dake Haifar da Radiation
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na Dalilan Ciwon Daji da complication of radiotherapy (en) Fassara

An san kuma bayyanar da ionizing radiation don ƙara yawan ciwon daji na gaba, musamman cutar sankarar bargo . An fahimci tsarin da wannan ke faruwa da kyau, amma ƙididdiga masu ƙididdigewa suna tsinkayar matakin haɗari sun kasance masu jayayya. Mafi kyawun samfurin da aka yarda da shi ya nuna cewa abubuwan da suka faru na ciwon daji saboda ionizing radiation yana karuwa a layi tare da tasiri mai tasiri a cikin adadin 5.5% a kowace sivert ;[1] idan daidai ne, asalin yanayin radiation shine tushen mafi haɗari na radiation zuwa lafiyar jama'a, sannan kuma hoton likita a matsayin kusa da na biyu.[ana buƙatar hujja], yawancin cututtukan da ba su da haɗari ba su ne cututtukan fata wadanda ba melanoma ba wanda ke haifar da radiation ultraviolet (wanda ke kan iyaka tsakanin ionizing da rashin ionizing radiation). Rashin ionizing mitar rediyo daga wayar hannu, watsa wutar lantarki, da sauran makamantansu an bayyana su a matsayin yiwuwar kamuwa da cutar sankara ta Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya ta WHO don Bincike kan Ciwon daji , amma haɗin gwiwar ya kasance ba a tabbatar da shi ba. [2]

Dalilai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Dangane da samfarin da ake yin amfani da shi, duk wani tasirin radiation zai iya ƙara haɗarin ciwon daji. Abubuwan da aka saba ba da gudummawa ga irin wannan haɗarin sun haɗa da hasken baya na asali, hanyoyin likita, fallasa sana'a, haɗarin nukiliya, da sauran su. An tattauna wasu manyan masu ba da gudummawa a ƙasa.

Radon

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Radon ya kasan ce shi ne ke da alhakin mafi yawan ma'anar bayyanar jama'a ga radiation ionizing . Yawancin lokaci ita ce mafi girma guda ɗaya mafi girma don ba da gudummawa ga asalin asalin mutum, kuma shine mafi canzawa daga wuri zuwa wuri. Radon gas daga tushen halitta na iya taruwa a cikin gine-gine, musamman a wuraren da aka killace kamar su ɗaki, da ginshiƙai. Hakanan ana iya samun shi a wasu ruwan magudanan ruwa da maɓuɓɓugan zafi. [3]

Shaidar cututtukan cututtuka na nuna alamar alaƙa tsakanin ciwon huhu na huhu da kuma yawan radon, tare da 21,000 radon da ke haifar da mutuwar ciwon daji na Amurka a kowace shekara — na biyu kawai ga shan taba sigari — a cewar Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka .[4] Don haka a cikin wuraren da radon ke kasancewa a cikin haɓakar haɓaka, ana ɗaukar radon a matsayin babban gurɓataccen iska na cikin gida .

Bayyanar mazaunin ga radon gas yana da irin wannan haɗarin kansa kamar shan taba .[5] Radiation shine tushen ciwon daji mafi ƙarfi idan aka haɗa shi da sauran abubuwan da ke haifar da cutar kansa, irin su radon gas ɗin da ke shan taba.[5]

Likita

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin ƙasashe masu ci gaban masana'antu, Hoto na likita yana ba da gudummawar kusan adadin radiation ga jama'a kamar na baya-bayan nan. Kashi na tara ga jama'ar Amurka daga hoton likitanci ya karu da kashi shida daga shekarae 1990 zuwa shekarar 2006, galibi saboda yawan amfani da sikanin 3D wanda ke ba da ƙarin kashi a kowace hanya fiye da na gargajiya .[6] CT scans kadai, wanda ke lissafin rabin kashi na hoto na likita ga jama'a, an kiyasta cewa yana da alhakin 0.4% na ciwon daji na yanzu a Amurka, kuma wannan na iya karuwa zuwa 1.5-2% tare da ƙimar 2007 na amfani da CT. ;[7] duk da haka, ana jayayya da wannan kiyasin.[8] Sauran dabarun maganin nukiliya sun haɗa da allurar magungunan rediyo kai tsaye zuwa cikin jini, da kuma jiyya na rediyo da gangan isar da allurai masu mutuwa (a matakin salula) zuwa ciwace-ciwace da kyallen jikin da ke kewaye.

An kiyasta cewa CT scan da aka yi a Amurka a cikin 2007 kadai zai haifar da sabbin cututtukan daji guda 29,000 a cikin shekaru masu zuwa.[9][10] An soki wannan ƙididdiga ta Cibiyar Nazarin Radiology ta Amurka (ACR), wacce ke kula da cewa tsawon rayuwar marasa lafiya na CT ba na yawan jama'a ba ne kuma cewa ƙirar ƙididdige cutar kansa ya dogara ne akan bayyanar hasken jiki gabaɗaya kuma don haka kuskure ne.[10]

Na sana'a

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Dangane da shawarwarin ICRP, yawancin masu mulki suna ba da izinin ma'aikatan makamashin nukiliya su sami ƙarin adadin radiation har sau 20 fiye da yadda aka ba wa jama'a izini.[1] Yawancin allurai ana ba da izini yayin amsa gaggawa. Yawancin ma'aikata ana kiyaye su da kyau a cikin iyakoki na tsari, yayin da wasu ƴan ma'aikatan fasaha za su kusanci iyakar su kowace shekara. Hatsarin wuce gona da iri na hatsari fiye da iyakoki na faruwa a duniya sau da yawa a shekara.[11] 'Yan sama jannati a kan dogon ayyuka suna cikin haɗarin kamuwa da cutar kansa, duba ciwon daji da jirgin sama.

Wasu sana'o'in suna fuskantar radiation ba tare da an lasafta su a matsayin ma'aikatan makamashin nukiliya ba. Ma'aikatan jirgin sama suna samun fa'idodin sana'a daga hasken sararin samaniya saboda ragewar garkuwar yanayi a tsayi. Ma'aikatan hakar ma'adinai suna samun fallasa sana'a ga radon, musamman a ma'adinan uranium. Duk wanda ke aiki a cikin ginin granite, kamar US Capitol, yana yiwuwa ya sami kashi daga uranium na halitta a cikin granite.[12]

Hatsari

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Chernobyl radiation taswirar daga 1996

Hadarin nukiliya na iya haifar da sakamako mai ban mamaki ga kewayen su, amma tasirinsu a duniya kan cutar kansa bai kai na abubuwan da suka faru na halitta da na likitanci ba.

Babban hatsarin nukiliyar mai yiwuwa shine bala'in Chernobyl . Baya ga mace-mace na al'ada da kuma mutuwar cututtukan cututtuka na radiation, yara tara sun mutu da ciwon daji na thyroid, kuma an kiyasta cewa za a iya samun mutuwar ciwon daji fiye da 4,000 a cikin kusan 600,000 mafi yawan fallasa mutane.[13][14] Daga cikin miliyan 100 curies (4 exabecquerels ) na kayan aikin rediyo, gajeriyar isotopes na rediyoaktif kamar Chernobyl da aka saki sune farkon mafi haɗari.131I Saboda gajeriyar rabin rayuwar su na kwanaki 5 da 8 yanzu sun lalace, sun bar mafi tsawon rayuwa 137Cs(tare da rabin rayuwar shekaru 30.07) da 90Sr (tare da rabin rayuwar shekaru 28.78) a matsayin babba. hatsarori.

A cikin Maris 2011, girgizar kasa da tsunami sun haifar da lalacewa wanda ya haifar da fashe-fashe da narkewar wani bangare a tashar makamashin nukiliya ta Fukushima I a Japan. Muhimmiyar sakin kayan aikin rediyo ya faru ne biyo bayan fashewar hydrogen a wasu injina guda uku, yayin da masu fasaha suka yi kokarin yin turbaya a cikin ruwan teku domin sanyaya sandunan man Uranium, suka zubar da iskar gas na rediyoaktif daga na'urorin da za su ba da damar ruwan tekun.[15] Damuwa game da babban sakin aikin rediyo ya haifar da 20 An kafa yankin keɓe kilomita a kusa da tashar wutar lantarki da mutane a cikin 20-30 km zone ana ba da shawarar zama a cikin gida. A ranar 24 ga Maris, 2011, jami'an Japan sun ba da sanarwar cewa "an gano radioactive iodine-131 wanda ya wuce iyakokin tsaro ga jarirai a masana'antar tsabtace ruwa 18 a Tokyo da wasu larduna biyar".[16]

A shekara ta 2003, a cikin binciken gawarwakin da aka yi wa yara 6 da suka mutu a gurɓataccen yanki kusa da Chernobyl, inda kuma suka ba da rahoton bullar cutar ta pancreatic ciwace-ciwacen daji, Bandazhevsky ya sami yawan adadin 137-Cs na 40-45 fiye da na hanta, don haka ya nuna cewa pancreatic. Nama shine mai ƙarfi mai tara ceium na rediyoaktif.[17] A cikin 2020, Zrielykh ya ba da rahoton bullar cutar kansar pancreatic mai girma a cikin Ukraine na tsawon shekara 10, akwai lokuta na rashin lafiya kuma a cikin yara a cikin 2013 idan aka kwatanta da 2003.[18]

Sauran munanan hadurran radiyo sun haɗa da bala'in Kyshtym (ƙimantawa 49 zuwa 55 mutuwar ciwon daji),[19] da wutar Windscale (kimanin mutuwar kansar 33). [20][21]

Hadarin Transit 5BN-3 SNAP 9A . A ranar 21 ga Afrilu, 1964, tauraron dan adam mai dauke da plutonium ya kone a sararin samaniya. Dokta John Gofman ya yi iƙirarin ƙara yawan cutar kansar huhu a duniya. Ya ce “Ko da yake ba zai yiwu a yi kiyasin ba  adadin cutar kansar huhu da hatsarin ya haifar, babu shakka cewa tarwatsawar Plutonium-238 da yawa zai ƙara yawan cutar kansar huhu da aka gano a cikin shekaru da yawa masu zuwa."[22][23]

Makanikai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ciwon daji wani tasiri ne na stochastic na radiation, ma'ana lamari ne wanda ba a iya tsammani ba. Yiwuwar abin da ya faru yana ƙaruwa tare da tasiri mai tasiri na radiation, amma tsananin ciwon daji ya kasance mai zaman kanta daga kashi. Gudun da ciwon daji ke ci gaba, tsinkaye, matakin zafi, da kowane nau'i na cutar ba ayyuka ne na kashi na radiation wanda aka fallasa mutum ba. Wannan ya bambanta da ƙayyadaddun sakamako na ciwo mai tsanani na radiation wanda ke ƙaruwa da tsanani tare da kashi sama da kofa. Ciwon daji yana farawa da kwayar halitta guda daya wanda aikinsa ya lalace. Ayyukan tantanin halitta na yau da kullun ana sarrafa su ta tsarin sinadarai na kwayoyin DNA, wanda kuma ake kira chromosomes .

Lokacin da radiation ya adana isasshen makamashi a cikin nama na kwayoyin halitta don haifar da ionization, wannan yana kula da karya ginshiƙan kwayoyin halitta, kuma don haka canza tsarin kwayoyin halitta na kwayoyin da ba su da iska. Ƙananan radiation mai ƙarfi, kamar hasken da ake iya gani, kawai yana haifar da tashin hankali, ba ionization ba, wanda yawanci ana watsawa azaman zafi tare da ƙananan lalacewar sinadarai. Hasken ultraviolet yawanci ana rarraba shi azaman rashin ionizing, amma a zahiri yana cikin kewayon matsakaici wanda ke haifar da ionization da lalata sinadarai. Don haka tsarin carcinogenic na ultraviolet radiation yayi kama da na ionizing radiation.

Ba kamar abubuwan da ke haifar da sinadarai ko ta jiki don cutar kansa ba, raɗaɗin raɗaɗi yana shiga ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin cuta a cikin sel ba da gangan ba. [note 1] Kwayoyin da suka karye ta hanyar radiation na iya zama radicals masu aiki sosai waɗanda ke haifar da ƙarin lalacewar sinadarai. Wasu daga cikin wannan lalacewar kai tsaye da kaikaice za su yi tasiri ga chromosomes da abubuwan epigenetic waɗanda ke sarrafa maganganun kwayoyin halitta. Hanyoyin salula za su gyara wasu daga cikin wannan lalacewa, amma wasu gyare-gyaren ba daidai ba ne kuma wasu rashin daidaituwa na chromosome za su zama wanda ba zai iya jurewa ba.

DNA biyu-strand breaks (DSBs) gabaɗaya an yarda da su zama mafi mahimmancin rauni ta ilimin halitta wanda ionizing radiation ke haifar da ciwon daji.[5] Gwaje-gwajen in vitro sun nuna cewa ionizing radiation yana haifar da DSBs a cikin adadin 35 DSBs a kowace tantanin halitta kowace Gray,[24] kuma yana cire wani yanki na alamomin epigenetic na DNA, [25] wanda ke tsara yanayin magana. Yawancin DSBs da aka jawo an gyara su a cikin 24h bayan bayyanarwa, duk da haka, 25% na gyare-gyaren da aka gyara ba daidai ba ne kuma game da 20% na ƙwayoyin fibroblast da aka fallasa zuwa 200mGy sun mutu a cikin kwanaki 4 bayan bayyanarwa.[26][27][28] Wani ɓangare na yawan jama'a yana da tsarin gyara DNA mara kyau, don haka suna fama da zagi mai girma saboda fallasa ga radiation.[24]

Babban lalacewa yakan haifar da mutuwar tantanin halitta ko rashin iya haifuwa. Wannan tasirin yana da alhakin mummunan ciwo na radiation, amma waɗannan ƙwayoyin da suka lalace sosai ba za su iya zama masu ciwon daji ba. Lalacewa mai sauƙi na iya barin barga, wani ɓangaren tantanin halitta mai aiki wanda zai iya yaduwa kuma a ƙarshe ya haɓaka zuwa kansa, musamman idan ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin cuta masu hana ƙari sun lalace.[5] [29] [30] [31] Binciken na baya-bayan nan ya nuna cewa al'amuran mutagenic ba sa faruwa nan da nan bayan haskakawa. Madadin haka, sel masu rai sun bayyana sun sami rashin zaman lafiya na kwayoyin halitta wanda ke haifar da karuwar adadin maye gurbi a cikin tsararraki masu zuwa. Tantanin halitta zai ci gaba ta matakai da yawa na canjin neoplastic wanda zai iya ƙarewa zuwa ƙari bayan shekaru da yawa. Ana iya raba canjin neoplastic zuwa manyan matakai masu zaman kansu guda uku: Canje-canjen Halittu zuwa tantanin halitta, samun rashin mutuwa ta salula (rasa al'ada, tsarin tafiyar da rayuwa mai iyaka), da daidaitawa waɗanda ke ba da izinin samuwar ƙwayar cuta.[5]

A wasu lokuta, ƙaramin kashi na radiation yana rage tasirin sakamako na gaba, mafi girman adadin radiation. Wannan an kira shi 'amsa mai karɓuwa' kuma yana da alaƙa da tsarin hasashen da ake yi na hormesis .[32]

Tsawon shekaru da yawa na ɓoye na iya wucewa tsakanin bayyanar radiation da gano ciwon daji. Waɗancan cututtukan daji waɗanda za su iya tasowa a sakamakon bayyanar radiation ba za a iya bambanta su da waɗanda ke faruwa ta zahiri ko kuma sakamakon kamuwa da wasu ƙwayoyin cuta na carcinogens . Bugu da ƙari, wallafe-wallafen Cibiyar Ciwon daji ta Ƙasa ya nuna cewa haɗarin sinadarai da na jiki da abubuwan rayuwa, kamar shan taba, shan barasa, da abinci, suna ba da gudummawa sosai ga yawancin waɗannan cututtuka. Shaidu daga masu hakar uranium sun nuna cewa shan taba yana iya samun mu'amala mai yawa, maimakon ƙari, tare da radiation.[5] Ana iya yin kimanta gudunmawar radiation ga cutar kansa ta hanyar manyan nazarin annoba tare da cikakkun bayanai game da duk wasu abubuwan haɗari masu rikitarwa.

Ciwon daji na fata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsawon tsawaitawa zuwa hasken ultraviolet daga rana zai iya haifar da melanoma da sauran cututtukan fata.[33] Shaida bayyananniya ta kafa ultraviolet radiation, musamman maras ionizing matsakaici kalaman UVB, a matsayin dalilin mafi yawan wadanda ba melanoma fata cancers, waxanda suke da na kowa nau'i na ciwon daji a duniya.[33]

Ciwon daji na fata na iya faruwa bayan bayyanar ionizing radiation bayan wani lokaci mai ɓoye wanda ya kai shekaru 20 zuwa 40.[34][35] Keratosis na yau da kullun na radiation wani rauni ne na fata na keratotic wanda zai iya tasowa akan fata shekaru da yawa bayan fallasa ga radiation ionizing. [36]:729Malignancies iri-iri na iya tasowa, yawancin ciwon daji na basal-cell wanda ke biye da kansar squamous-cell.[34] [37][38] Haɗarin haɓaka yana iyakance ga wurin da aka fallasa hasken. [39] Yawancin karatu kuma sun ba da shawarar yuwuwar alaƙar alaƙa tsakanin melanoma da bayyanar ionizing radiation.[40] Matsakaicin haɗarin ciwon daji da ke tasowa daga ƙananan matakan fallasa ya fi rikice-rikice, amma shaidar da ake da ita tana nuna ƙarin haɗarin da ya yi daidai da adadin da aka karɓa. [41] Masu aikin rediyo da masu daukar hoto suna daga cikin rukunin sana'o'in farko da aka fallasa ga radiation. Shi ne abin lura na farkon masu aikin rediyo wanda ya haifar da gane cutar kansar fata da ke haifar da radiation-canza ta farko mai alaƙa da radiation-a cikin 1902. Yayin da cutar kansar fata ta biyu zuwa radiation ionizing ta likita ta kasance mafi girma a baya, akwai kuma wasu shaidun da ke nuna cewa haɗarin wasu cututtuka, musamman ciwon daji na fata, na iya karuwa a tsakanin ma'aikatan radiation na likita na baya-bayan nan, kuma wannan na iya zama dangantaka da takamaiman ko canza ayyukan radiologic.[42] Shaidu da ake da su sun nuna cewa yawan haɗarin cutar kansar fata yana ɗaukar shekaru 45 ko fiye bayan haskakawa.[42]

Epidemiology

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ciwon daji wani tasiri ne na stochastic na radiation, ma'ana cewa kawai yana da yuwuwar faruwa, sabanin tasirin ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun abubuwa waɗanda koyaushe ke faruwa akan takamaiman matakin kashi. Yarjejeniyar masana'antar nukiliya, masu kula da makamashin nukiliya, da gwamnatoci, shine cewa za'a iya ƙirƙira abubuwan da suka faru na cutar kansa ta hanyar ionizing radiation kamar yadda ake haɓaka daidai gwargwado tare da ingantacciyar ƙwayar radiation a cikin ƙimar 5.5% a kowane gefe .[1] Nazari guda ɗaya, madadin samfura, da sigogin farko na yarjejeniya masana'antu sun samar da wasu ƙididdiga masu haɗari da suka warwatse a kusa da wannan ƙirar yarjejeniya. Akwai yarjejeniya gaba ɗaya cewa haɗarin ya fi girma ga jarirai da 'yan tayi fiye da manya, mafi girma ga masu matsakaicin shekaru fiye da tsofaffi, kuma mafi girma ga mata fiye da na maza, kodayake babu wata ƙima game da wannan.[43][44] An yarda da wannan ƙirar don radiation na waje, amma ana jayayya game da aikace-aikacensa ga gurɓataccen ciki. Alal misali, samfurin ya kasa yin la'akari da ƙananan ciwon daji a cikin ma'aikata na farko a Los Alamos National Laboratory waɗanda aka fallasa su da ƙurar plutonium, da kuma yawan ciwon daji na thyroid a cikin yara bayan hadarin Chernobyl, dukansu biyu sun kasance abubuwan da suka faru na ciki. . Chris Busby na kansa mai suna "Kwamitin Turai kan Hatsarin Radiation", ya kira tsarin ICRP "mai rauni mai rauni" idan ya zo ga fallasa cikin gida.[45]

Radiation na iya haifar da ciwon daji a mafi yawan sassan jiki, a cikin dukan dabbobi, da kuma kowane shekaru, duk da cewa radiation-induced tabarbarewar ciwace-ciwacen daji yakan dauki shekaru 10-15, kuma zai iya ɗaukar shekaru 40, ya bayyana a asibiti, kuma radiation-jawowa. cutar sankarar bargo yawanci yana buƙatar shekaru 2-9 don bayyana. [5] [46] Wasu mutane, irin su waɗanda ke da ciwon basal cell carcinoma ko retinoblastoma, sun fi sauƙi fiye da matsakaici don bunkasa ciwon daji daga bayyanar radiation. [5] Yara da matasa suna da yuwuwar haɓaka cutar sankarar bargo da ke haifar da radiation sau biyu kamar manya; Fitar da radiation kafin haihuwa yana da tasirin sau goma. [5]

Fitar da hasken Radiation na iya haifar da ciwon daji a cikin kowane nau'in nama mai rai, amma babban kashi gaba ɗaya na bayyanar waje na waje yana da alaƙa da cutar sankarar bargo, [47] yana nuna babban radiyo na bargo. Abubuwan da ke cikin ciki suna haifar da ciwon daji a cikin gabobin da ke tattare da kayan aikin rediyo, don haka radon ya fi haifar da ciwon huhu, iiodine-131don ciwon daji na thyroid yana iya haifar da cutar sankarar bargo.

Bayanan bayanai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Haɗarin Haɗarin Ciwon daji mai ƙarfi tare da Kashi don masu tsira daga fashewar atomic

Ƙungiyoyin da ke tsakanin ionizing radiation fallasa da ci gaban ciwon daji sun dogara ne da farko a kan "Ƙungiyar LSS " na mutanen da suka tsira daga bam na Japan, mafi yawan yawan mutane da aka taɓa fuskantar manyan matakan ionizing radiation. Sai dai kuma wannan rukunin ya fuskanci zafi mai zafi, duka daga farkon hasken nukiliya na hasken infrared da kuma biyo bayan fashewar wutar da suka yi da gobarar da ta taso a garuruwan biyu, don haka wadanda suka tsira sun kuma yi maganin Hyperthermia zuwa digiri daban-daban. Hyperthermia, ko bayyanar da zafi bayan haskakawa sananne ne a fagen jiyya na radiation don ƙara girman tsananin zagi ga sel bayan haskakawa. A halin yanzu duk da haka babu wani yunƙuri da aka yi don magance wannan lamari mai ruɗani, ba a haɗa shi ko gyara shi a cikin matakan amsa kashi na wannan rukunin.

An tattara ƙarin bayanai daga waɗanda aka zaɓa na hanyoyin kiwon lafiya da bala'in Chernobyl na 1986. Akwai madaidaicin hanyar haɗi (duba Rahoton UNSCEAR 2000, Volume 2: Effects ) tsakanin hatsarin Chernobyl da adadi mai yawa wanda ba a saba gani ba, kamar 1,800, na cututtukan daji na thyroid da aka ruwaito a cikin gurɓatattun wurare, galibi a cikin yara.

Don ƙananan matakan radiation, illolin halittu suna da ƙanƙanta ba za a iya gano su ba a cikin nazarin annoba. Ko da yake radiation na iya haifar da ciwon daji a babban allurai da yawan adadin kuzari, bayanan lafiyar jama'a game da ƙananan matakan fallasa, ƙasa da kusan 10 mSv (1,000 mrem), sun fi wuya a fassara. Don tantance tasirin lafiyar ƙananan allurai na radiation, masu bincike sun dogara da tsarin tsarin da radiation ke haifar da ciwon daji; samfura da yawa waɗanda ke hasashen matakan haɗari daban-daban sun fito.

Nazarin ma'aikatan sana'a da aka fallasa ga ƙananan matakan radiation na yau da kullum, sama da asali na al'ada, sun ba da shaida mai gauraya game da ciwon daji da kuma tasirin da ke faruwa. Sakamakon ciwon daji, ko da yake ba shi da tabbas, ya yi daidai da alkaluman hadarin da ya danganci wadanda suka tsira daga bam din atomic kuma suna ba da shawarar cewa waɗannan ma'aikata suna fuskantar ƙananan karuwa a yiwuwar kamuwa da cutar sankarar bargo da sauran cututtuka. Ɗaya daga cikin kwanan nan kuma mai zurfi na nazarin ma'aikata an buga ta Cardis, et al. a shekarar 2005.[48] Akwai shaida cewa ƙananan matakin, taƙaitaccen fallasa hasken wuta ba su da lahani. [49]

Yin samfuri

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Madadin zato don fitar da haɗarin ciwon daji vs. radiation kashi zuwa ƙananan matakan, da aka ba da sanannen haɗari a babban kashi: supra-linearity (A), linear (B), linear-quadratic (C) da hormesis (D). ).

Samfurin amsawar kashi na layi yana nuna cewa duk wani karuwa a cikin kashi, komai kankantarsa, yana haifar da haɓakar haɓakar haɗari. Samfurin ba-kofi na layi (LNT) yana karɓar karɓa daga Hukumar Kula da Kariyar Radiyo ta Duniya (ICRP) da masu gudanarwa a duk duniya. [50] Bisa ga wannan samfurin, kimanin kashi 1% na al'ummar duniya suna fama da ciwon daji a sakamakon radiation na asali a wani lokaci a rayuwarsu. Don kwatanta, 13% na mace-mace a cikin 2008 ana danganta su da ciwon daji, don haka hasken baya zai iya zama ƙaramin mai ba da gudummawa.[51]

Jam'iyyu da dama sun soki amincewar ICRP na tsarin ba-kofa na layi don wuce gona da iri na ƙananan allurai na radiation. Mafi sau da yawa da aka ambata a madadin su ne samfurin "mai layi na quadratic" da kuma "hormesis" model. Ana kallon ƙirar madaidaicin madaidaiciya a cikin aikin rediyo azaman mafi kyawun ƙirar rayuwa ta salula, [52] kuma shine mafi dacewa ga bayanan cutar sankarar bargo daga ƙungiyar LSS. [5]

Litattafai babu kofa F(D)=a⋅D
Madaidaicin madaidaici F(D)=a⋅D+β⋅D 2
Hormesis F(D)=a⋅[D-β]

A cikin dukkan shari'o'i uku, dole ne a ƙayyade ƙimar alpha da beta ta hanyar koma baya daga bayanan fallasa ɗan adam. Gwaje-gwajen dakin gwaje-gwaje akan dabbobi da samfuran nama suna da iyakacin ƙima. Yawancin ingantattun bayanan ɗan adam da ake samu daga manyan mutane ne, sama da 0.1 Sv, don haka duk wani amfani da samfuran a ƙananan allurai ƙari ne wanda zai iya zama mai ra'ayin mazan jiya ko fiye da ra'ayin mazan jiya. Babu isassun bayanan ɗan adam da ke akwai don daidaita tsayuwar wanne daga cikin waɗannan ƙirar zai iya zama daidai a ƙananan allurai. Ijma'in ya kasance a ɗauka ba tare da kofa na layi ba saboda shine mafi sauƙi kuma mafi ra'ayin mazan jiya na ukun.

Radiation hormesis shine hasashe cewa ƙaramin matakin ionizing radiation (watau, kusa da matakin radiation na yanayin yanayin duniya) yana taimakawa "alurar rigakafi" kwayoyin halitta daga lalacewar DNA daga wasu dalilai (kamar radicals kyauta ko manyan allurai na ionizing radiation), kuma yana raguwa. hadarin ciwon daji. Ka'idar ta ba da shawarar cewa irin waɗannan ƙananan matakan suna kunna hanyoyin gyaran DNA na jiki, yana haifar da matakan da suka fi girma na sunadaran gyaran gyare-gyare na DNA a cikin jiki, inganta ƙarfin jiki don gyara lalacewar DNA. Wannan ikirari yana da matukar wahala a iya tabbatarwa a cikin mutane (amfani, alal misali, nazarin ciwon daji na ƙididdiga) saboda tasirin ƙananan matakan ionizing radiation sun yi ƙanƙanta da za a iya ƙididdige su a cikin "hayan" na yawan ciwon daji na yau da kullum.

Ra'ayin radiation hormesis ana ɗaukarsa wanda ba a tabbatar da shi ba ta hanyar hukumomin gudanarwa. Idan samfurin hormesis ya zama daidai, yana yiwuwa cewa ka'idoji na yau da kullum bisa tsarin LNT zasu hana ko iyakance tasirin maganin hormetic, don haka yana da mummunar tasiri ga lafiya.[53]

An lura da wasu abubuwan da ba na layi ba, musamman ga allurai na ciki . Misali, aidin-131 sananne ne a cikin cewa yawancin allurai na isotope wasu lokuta ba su da haɗari fiye da ƙarancin allurai, tunda suna kashe ƙwayoyin thyroid waɗanda ba za su zama masu cutar kansa ba sakamakon radiation. Yawancin nazarin I-131 mai girma don maganin cutar Graves sun kasa samun karuwa a cikin ciwon daji na thyroid, ko da yake akwai karuwa a layi daya a cikin hadarin ciwon daji na thyroid tare da sha na I-131 a matsakaicin allurai.[54]

Amincin jama'a

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ƙananan bayyanar cututtuka, irin su rayuwa kusa da tashar makamashin nukiliya ko tashar wutar lantarki, wanda ke da hayaki mafi girma fiye da na nukiliya, yawanci an yi imanin cewa ba shi da wani tasiri ko kadan akan ci gaban ciwon daji, hana haɗari. [5] Abubuwan da suka fi damuwa sun haɗa da radon a cikin gine-gine da kuma yawan amfani da hoton likita.

Hukumar Kula da Kariyar Radiyo ta Duniya (ICRP) ta ba da shawarar iyakance isar da iska na wucin gadi na jama'a zuwa matsakaicin 1 mSv (0.001 Sv) na ingantacciyar kashi a kowace shekara, ban da haɗaɗɗun bayanan likita da na sana'a.[1] Don kwatantawa, matakan radiation a cikin ginin babban birnin Amurka sun kasance 0.85 mSv/yr, kusa da ƙayyadaddun tsari, saboda abun ciki na uranium na tsarin granite. [12] Bisa ga tsarin ICRP, wanda ya shafe shekaru 20 a cikin ginin babban birnin kasar zai sami karin daya a cikin dubun damar kamuwa da cutar kansa, fiye da duk wani hadarin da ke akwai. (20 yr X 0.85 mSv/yr X 0.001 Sv/mSv X 5.5%/Sv = ~0.1%) Wannan "hadarin da ke wanzu" ya fi girma; Matsakaicin Ba'amurke zai sami kashi ɗaya cikin goma na damar kamuwa da cutar kansa a cikin wannan lokacin na shekaru 20, ko da ba tare da fallasa ga radiation ta wucin gadi ba.

Lalacewar ciki saboda sha, shaka, allura, ko sha yana da damuwa ta musamman saboda kayan aikin rediyo na iya zama a cikin jiki na tsawon lokaci, "aikawa" batun tattara kashi na tsawon lokaci bayan bayyanar farko ta ƙare, duk da haka a. low kashi rates. Fiye da mutane ɗari, ciki har da Eben Byers da 'yan mata na radium, sun karɓi allurai fiye da 10 Gy kuma sun ci gaba da mutuwa daga ciwon daji ko kuma abubuwan halitta, yayin da adadin adadin ƙwayar waje zai iya haifar da mutuwar farko ta hanyar radiation mai tsanani. ciwo .[55]

Ana sarrafa fallasa cikin jama'a ta hanyar ƙayyadaddun tsari akan abun cikin rediyoaktif na abinci da ruwa. Waɗannan iyakoki galibi ana bayyana su a cikin becquerel /kilogram, tare da iyakoki daban-daban da aka saita don kowane gurɓataccen abu.

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ko da yake an gano radiation a ƙarshen karni na 19, ba a gane haɗarin aikin rediyo da radiation nan da nan ba. An fara ganin mummunan tasirin radiation a cikin amfani da hasken X-ray lokacin da Wilhelm Röntgen da gangan ya sanya yatsunsa zuwa hasken X-ray a 1895. Ya buga abubuwan da ya lura da shi game da konewar da ke tasowa, kodayake ya danganta su ga ozone maimakon X-ray. Rauninsa ya warke daga baya.

An gane tasirin kwayoyin halitta na radiation, gami da tasirin haɗarin kansa, da yawa daga baya. A cikin 1927 Hermann Joseph Muller ya buga bincike yana nuna tasirin kwayoyin halitta, kuma a cikin 1946 an ba shi kyautar Nobel don bincikensa. Ba da daɗewa ba an danganta radiation zuwa kansar kashi a cikin masu zanen radium dial, amma ba a tabbatar da hakan ba har sai an gudanar da nazarin dabbobi masu yawa bayan yakin duniya na biyu. An ƙididdige haɗarin ta hanyar nazarin dogon lokaci na waɗanda suka tsira daga bam ɗin atomic .

Kafin a san illolin halittu na radiation, likitoci da kamfanoni da yawa sun fara tallata sinadarai na rediyoaktif a matsayin likitan haƙƙin mallaka da kuma quackery na rediyoaktif . Misalai sune jiyya na radium enema, da ruwa mai ɗauke da radium da za a sha azaman tonics. Marie Curie ta yi magana game da irin wannan nau'in magani, tana mai gargadin cewa ba a fahimci tasirin radiation a jikin ɗan adam ba. Curie daga baya ya mutu da aplastic anemia, ba ciwon daji ba. Eben Byers, sanannen zamantakewa na Amurka, ya mutu daga cututtuka masu yawa a cikin 1932 bayan ya cinye radium mai yawa a cikin shekaru da yawa; Mutuwar tasa ta ja hankalin jama'a game da illolin radiation. A cikin 1930s, bayan adadin necrosis na kashi da kuma mutuwa a cikin masu sha'awar, samfuran likitancin da ke ɗauke da radium sun kusan ɓacewa daga kasuwa.

A cikin Amurka, kwarewar abin da ake kira Radium Girls, inda dubban masu zane-zane na radium-dial suka kamu da ciwon daji na baka, sun yada gargadin lafiyar sana'a da ke hade da hadarin radiation. Robley D. Evans, a MIT, ya samar da ma'auni na farko don halatta nauyin jikin radium, wani muhimmin mataki na kafa magungunan nukiliya a matsayin filin nazari. Tare da haɓaka injinan nukiliya da makaman nukiliya a cikin 1940s, an ba da ƙarin kulawar kimiyya don nazarin kowane nau'in tasirin radiation.

Bayanan kula

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

  1. ↑ In the case of internal contamination with alpha emitters, the distribution may not be so random. Transuranic elements are believed to have a chemical affinity for DNA, and any radioactive element could be part of a chemical compound that targets certain molecules.

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Icrp (2007). "The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection". Annals of the ICRP. ICRP publication 103. 37 (2–4). ISBN 978-0-7020-3048-2. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
  2. ↑ "IARC classifies radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans" (PDF). World Health Organization.
  3. ↑ "Facts about Radon". Facts about. Archived from the original on 2005-02-22. Retrieved 2008-09-07.
  4. ↑ "A Citizen's Guide to Radon". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2007-11-26. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 Little JB (2000). "Chapter 14: Ionizing Radiation". In Kufe DW, Pollock RE, Weichselbaum RR, Bast RC, Gansler TS, Holland JF, Frei E (eds.). Cancer medicine (6th ed.). Hamilton, Ont: B.C. Decker. ISBN 978-1-55009-113-7.
  6. ↑ Ionizing radiation exposure of the population of the United States : recommendations of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Bethesda, Md.: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 2009. ISBN 978-0-929600-98-7. NCRP report 160. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2022-02-11.
  7. ↑ Brenner DJ, Hall EJ; Hall (November 2007). "Computed tomography--an increasing source of radiation exposure". N. Engl. J. Med. 357 (22): 2277–84. doi:10.1056/NEJMra072149. PMID 18046031. Archived from the original on 2022-03-19. Retrieved 2022-02-11.
  8. ↑ Tubiana M (February 2008). "Comment on Computed Tomography and Radiation Exposure". N. Engl. J. Med. 358 (8): 852–3. doi:10.1056/NEJMc073513. PMID 18287609.
  9. ↑ Berrington de González A, Mahesh M, Kim KP, Bhargavan M, Lewis R, Mettler F, Land C; Mahesh; Kim; Bhargavan; Lewis; Mettler; Land (December 2009). "Projected cancer risks from computed tomographic scans performed in the United States in 2007". Arch. Intern. Med. 169 (22): 2071–7. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2009.440. PMC 6276814. PMID 20008689.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Roxanne Nelson (December 17, 2009). "Thousands of New Cancers Predicted Due to Increased Use of CT". Medscape. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
  11. ↑ Turai, István; Veress, Katalin (2001). "Radiation Accidents: Occurrence, Types, Consequences, Medical Management, and the Lessons to be Learned". Central European Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 7 (1): 3–14. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program. "Radiation in the Environment" (PDF). US Army Corps of Engineers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  13. ↑ "IAEA Report". In Focus: Chernobyl. Archived from the original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-31.
  14. ↑ WHO Expert Group (July 2006). Bennett, Burton; Repacholi, Michael; Carr, Zhanat (eds.). Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident and Special Health Care Programmes: Report of the UN Chernobyl Forum Health Expert Group (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. p. 106. ISBN 978-92-4-159417-2. ...This total, about 4000 deaths projected over the lifetimes of the some 600,000 persons most affected by the accident, is a small proportion of the total cancer deaths from all causes that can be expected to occur in this population. It must be stressed that this estimate is bounded by large uncertainties
  15. ↑ Keith Bradsher; et al. (April 12, 2011). "Japanese Officials on Defensive as Nuclear Alert Level Rises". New York Times.
  16. ↑ Michael Winter (March 24, 2011). "Report: Emissions from Japan plant approach Chernobyl levels". USA Today.
  17. ↑ Bandazhevsky Y.I. (2003). "Chronic Cs-137 incorporation in children's organs". Swiss Med. Wkly. 133 (35–36): 488–90. PMID 14652805.
  18. ↑ Zrielykh, Liliia (2020). "Analysis of statistics of pancreatic cancer in Ukraine for a period of 10 years". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 38 (15_suppl): e16721. doi:10.1200/JCO.2020.38.15_suppl.e16721. S2CID 219776252.
  19. ↑ Standring, William J.F.; Dowdall, Mark and Strand, Per (2009). "Overview of Dose Assessment Developments and the Health of Riverside Residents Close to the "Mayak" PA Facilities, Russia". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 6 (1): 174–199. doi:10.3390/ijerph6010174. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 2672329. PMID 19440276.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ Perhaps the Worst, Not the First TIME magazine, May 12, 1986.
  21. ↑ Sovacool Benjamin K (2010). "A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia". Journal of Contemporary Asia. 40 (3): 393. doi:10.1080/00472331003798350. S2CID 154882872.
  22. ↑ Hardy, E. P. Jr; Krey, P. W.; Volchok, H. L. (January 1, 1972). "Global Inventory and Distribution of Pu-238 from SNAP-9A". doi:10.2172/4689831. OSTI 4689831. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  23. ↑ Grossman, Karl (January 4, 2011). Weapons in Space. Seven Stories Press. ISBN 9781609803209 – via Google Books.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Rothkamm K, Löbrich M (April 2003). "Evidence for a lack of DNA double-strand break repair in human cells exposed to very low x-ray doses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (9): 5057–5062. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.5057R. doi:10.1073/pnas.0830918100. PMC 154297. PMID 12679524. "The line is a linear fit to the data points with a slope of 35 DSBs per cell per Gy." e.g. 35[DSB/Gy]*65[mGy]=2.27[DSB]
  25. ↑ Fractionated Low-Dose Radiation Exposure Leads to Accumulation of DNA Damage and Profound Alterations in DNA and Histone Methylation in the Murine Thymus "fractionated low-dose radiation exposure resulted in even more substantial decrease in global DNA methylation than acute irradiation, causing 2.5- and 6.1-fold (P < 0.05) reduction in global DNA methylation
  26. ↑ Rothkamm K, Löbrich M (April 2003). "Evidence for a lack of DNA double-strand break repair in human cells exposed to very low x-ray doses". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100 (9): 5057–62. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.5057R. doi:10.1073/pnas.0830918100. PMC 154297. PMID 12679524.
  27. ↑ Lobrich, M.; Rydberg, B.; Cooper, P. K. (1995-12-19). "Repair of x-ray-induced DNA double-strand breaks in specific Not I restriction fragments in human fibroblasts: joining of correct and incorrect ends". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 92 (26): 12050–12054. Bibcode:1995PNAS...9212050L. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.26.12050. PMC 40294. PMID 8618842.
  28. ↑ Vyjayanti V.N., Subba Rao Kalluri (2006). "DNA double strand break repair in brain: Reduced NHEJ activity in aging rat neurons". Neuroscience Letters. 393 (1): 18–22. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.09.053. PMID 16226837. S2CID 45487524.
  29. ↑ Acharya, PVN; The Effect of Ionizing Radiation on the Formation of Age-Correlated Oligo Deoxyribo Nucleo Phospheryl Peptides in Mammalian Cells; 10th International Congress of Gerontology, Jerusalem. Abstract No. 1; January 1975. Work done while employed by Dept. of Pathology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
  30. ↑ Acharya, PVN; Implications of The Action of Low Level Ionizing Radiation on the Inducement of Irreparable DNA Damage Leading to Mammalian Aging and Chemical Carcinogenesis.; 10th International Congress of Biochemistry, Hamburg, Germany. Abstract No. 01-1-079; July 1976. Work done while employed by Dept. of Pathology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
  31. ↑ Acharya, PV Narasimh; Irreparable DNA-Damage by Industrial Pollutants in Pre-mature Aging, Chemical Carcinogenesis and Cardiac Hypertrophy: Experiments and Theory; 1st International Meeting of Heads of Clinical Biochemistry Laboratories, Jerusalem, Israel. April 1977. Work conducted at Industrial Safety Institute and Behavioral Cybernetics Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
  32. ↑ "Radiation Hormesis Challenging LNT Theory Via Ecologial and Evolutionary Considerations" (PDF). Publication date 2002. Health Physics Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-22. Retrieved 2010-12-11.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Cleaver JE, Mitchell DL (2000). "15. Ultraviolet Radiation Carcinogenesis". In Bast RC, Kufe DW, Pollock RE, et al. (eds.). Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine (5th ed.). Hamilton, Ontario: B.C. Decker. ISBN 978-1-55009-113-7. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 James, William D.; Berger, Timothy G. (2006). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology. Saunders Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7216-2921-6.
  35. ↑ Gawkrodger DJ (October 2004). "Occupational skin cancers". Occup Med (Lond). 54 (7): 458–63. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqh098. PMID 15486177.
  36. ↑ Freedberg, et al. (2003). Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine. (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. 08033994793.ABA.
  37. ↑ Hurko O, Provost TT; Provost (April 1999). "Neurology and the skin". J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 66 (4): 417–30. doi:10.1136/jnnp.66.4.417. PMC 1736315. PMID 10201411.
  38. ↑ Suárez, B; López-Abente, G; Martínez, C; et al. (2007). "Occupation and skin cancer: the results of the HELIOS-I multicenter case-control study". BMC Public Health. 7: 180. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-7-180. PMC 1994683. PMID 17655745.
  39. ↑ Lichter, Michael D.; et al. (Aug 2000). "Therapeutic ionizing radiation and the incidence of basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. The New Hampshire Skin Cancer Study Group". Arch Dermatol. 136 (8): 1007–11. doi:10.1001/archderm.136.8.1007. PMID 10926736.
  40. ↑ Fink CA, Bates MN; Bates (November 2005). "Melanoma and ionizing radiation: is there a causal relationship?". Radiat. Res. 164 (5): 701–10. Bibcode:2005RadR..164..701F. doi:10.1667/RR3447.1. PMID 16238450. S2CID 23024610.
  41. ↑ Wakeford R (August 2004). "The cancer epidemiology of radiation". Oncogene. 23 (38): 6404–28. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1207896. PMID 15322514.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Yoshinaga S, Mabuchi K, Sigurdson AJ, Doody MM, Ron E; Mabuchi; Sigurdson; Doody; Ron (November 2004). "Cancer risks among radiologists and radiologic technologists: review of epidemiologic studies". Radiology. 233 (2): 313–21. doi:10.1148/radiol.2332031119. PMID 15375227.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ↑ Peck, Donald J.; Samei, Ehsan. "How to Understand and Communicate Radiation Risk". Image Wisely. Archived from the original on 8 December 2010. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  44. ↑ United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2008). Effects of ionizing radiation : UNSCEAR 2006 report to the General Assembly, with scientific annexes. New York: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-142263-4. Retrieved 18 May 2012.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  45. ↑ European Committee on Radiation Risk (2010). Busby, Chris; et al. (eds.). 2010 recommendations of the ECRR : the health effects of exposure to low doses of ionizing radiation (PDF) (Regulators' ed.). Aberystwyth: Green Audit. ISBN 978-1-897761-16-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  46. ↑ Coggle, J.E., Lindop, Patricia J. "Medical Consequences of Radiation Following a Global Nuclear War." The Aftermath (1983): 60-71.
  47. ↑ "A Nested Case-Control Study of Leukemia and Ionizing Radiation at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard", NIOSH Publication No. 2005-104. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
  48. ↑ Cardis, E; Vrijheid, M; Blettner, M; et al. (July 2005). "Risk of cancer after low doses of ionising radiation: retrospective cohort study in 15 countries". BMJ. 331 (7508): 77. doi:10.1136/bmj.38499.599861.E0. PMC 558612. PMID 15987704.
  49. ↑ Werner Olipitz; Wiktor-Brown; Shuga; Pang; McFaline; Lonkar; Thomas; Mutamba; Greenberger; Samson; Dedon; Yanch; Engelward; et al. (April 2012). "Integrated Molecular Analysis Indicates Undetectable DNA Damage in Mice after Continuous Irradiation at ~400-fold Natural Background Radiation". Environmental Health Perspectives. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 120 (8): 1130–6. doi:10.1289/ehp.1104294. PMC 3440074. PMID 22538203.
  50. ↑ Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII – Phase 2. Committee to Assess Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, National Research Council (2006) Free Executive Summary
  51. ↑ WHO (Oct 2010). "Cancer". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2011-01-05.
  52. ↑ Podgorsak, E.B., ed. (2005). Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students (PDF). Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency. p. 493. ISBN 978-92-0-107304-4. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
  53. ↑ Sanders, Charles L. (2010). "The LNT assumption". Radiation Hormesis and the Linear-No-Threshold Assumption. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. p. 3. Bibcode:2010rhln.book.....S. ISBN 978-3-642-03719-1. ...a large number of experimental and epidemiological studies challenge the validity of the LNT assumption, strongly suggesting the presence of a threshold and/or benefits from low doses of ionizing radiation
  54. ↑ Rivkees, Scott A.; Sklar, Charles; Freemark, Michael (1998). "The Management of Graves' Disease in Children, with Special Emphasis on Radioiodine Treatment". Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 83 (11): 3767–76. doi:10.1210/jc.83.11.3767. PMID 9814445.
  55. ↑ Rowland, R.E. (1994). Radium in Humans: A Review of U.S. Studies (PDF). Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ciwon_Dajin_Dake_Haifar_da_Radiation&oldid=293472"