Gine-gine na Mesoamerica

Gine-gine na Mesoamerica
	architecture of geographic location (en)
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na	architecture of North America (en) da Pre-Columbian art of Mesoamerica (en)
Bangare na	Amerindian architecture (en)
Facet of (en)	Mesoamerica (en)
Wuri
	16°N 93°W / 16°N 93°W

Gine-gine na Mesoamerican shine saitin al'adun gine-ginen da al'adun gargajiya na Columbia suka samar da su da wayewar Mesoamerica, al'adun da aka fi sani da su ta hanyar gine-ginen jama'a, biki da na birni. Filayen fasalulluka na gine-ginen Mesoamerican sun ƙunshi salo daban-daban na yanki da na tarihi, waɗanda duk da haka suna da alaƙa sosai. Waɗannan nau'ikan sun haɓaka cikin matakai daban-daban na tarihin Mesoamerican sakamakon babban musayar al'adu tsakanin al'adu daban-daban na yankin al'adun Mesoamerican cikin dubban shekaru. Gine-ginen Mesoamerican galibi ana lura dasu don dala, waɗanda sune mafi girma irin wannan tsarin a wajen tsohuwar Masar .

Wani batu mai ban sha'awa da bincike ko'ina shine alakar da ke tsakanin cosmovision, addini, labarin kasa, da gine-gine a Mesoamerica. Da yawa da alama suna ba da shawarar cewa yawancin halaye na gine-ginen Mesoamerican an gudanar da su ta hanyar ra'ayoyin addini da na tatsuniyoyi. Misali, shimfidar mafi yawan garuruwan Mesoamerican da alama jagororin jahilai ne da ma'anar tatsuniya da ma'anarsu a al'adun Mesoamerican .

Wani bangare na gine-ginen Mesoamerican shine hoton hoton sa. Babban gine-gine na Mesoamerica an ƙawata shi da hotuna na mahimmancin addini da al'adu, haka kuma a yawancin lokuta tare da rubuce-rubuce a wasu tsarin rubutun Mesoamerican . Abubuwan kayan ado da rubutu a kan gine-gine suna da muhimmiyar gudummawa ga ilimin halin yanzu na al'ummar Mesoamerican kafin Colombian, tarihi da addini.

Tarihi

Tebura masu zuwa suna nuna matakai daban-daban na gine-ginen Mesoamerican da ilimin kimiya na kayan tarihi kuma suna daidaita su da al'adu, birane, salo da takamaiman gine-gine waɗanda suka shahara daga kowane zamani.

Lokaci	Tsawon lokaci	Muhimman al'adu, birane, tsari da salo
Pre-Classic (Formative)	BC 2000-1000	Al'adun Gulf Coast, Olmec, Al'adun Monte Alto
Farkon Pre-Classic	BC 2000-1000	Cibiyar Olmec San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, Chalcatzingo, San José Mogote, La Mojarra Steala 12
Tsakanin Pre-Classic	BC 1000-400	Late Olmec and Early Maya, Izapa, La Venta, Tres Zapotes, Usulután ceramics, Nakbé, Lamanai, Xunantunich Naj Tunich Cave, El Mirador, Kaminaljuyú
Late Pre-Classic	BC 400-200 AD	Preclassic Maya, Teotihuacan da Zapotec, Teuchitlan Tradition formative periods, Teotihuacan, Uaxactún, Tikal, Edzná, Monte Albán I & II, Pyramid of the Sun, Guachimontones
Classic	AD 200-900	Cibiyar Maya Classic, Teotihuacan, Zapotecs, Al'adun Teuchitlan
Farkon Classic	AD 200-600	Teotihuacan apogee, Monte Albán III, Palenque, Copán, Classic Veracruz al'ada, Talud-tablero, Hieroglyphic matakala na Copán, Kabarin Pacal the Great ,
Late Classic	AD 600-900	Xochicalco, Cacaxtla, Cancuen, Quiriguá, Uxmal, Toniná, Classic Veracruz Culture, Puuc style, Rio Bec style, Cobá, Yaxchilan Lintel 24
Bayan Classic	AD 900-1519	Maya Itzá, Chichen Itza, Mayapan, Tayasal, and Kowoj Topoxte, Toltec, Purépecha, Mixtec, Totonac
Farkon Post-Classic	AD 900-1200	Cholula, Tula, Mitla, El Tajín, Tulum, Kaminaljuyú
Late Post-Classic	AD 1200-1519	Aztec, Tenochtitlan, Templo Mayor, Tzintzuntzan, Quiché Utatlán, Kaqchikel Iximche and Mam Zaculeu, Maya, Utatlán, Cempoala

Shirye-shiryen Birane da cosmovision

Cosmos da kwafi

Alamar alama

Tsarin birnin Teotihuacan. An shimfida tsakiyar birnin yana bin wata axis ta arewa/kudu mai daidaitawa kusan digiri 15.5, kuma wacce ke da alamar "Titin matattu". Dala na rana yana tsakiyar, an gina shi akan kogon wucin gadi. Yankin kudancin ya karkata ne da kimanin digiri 16.5 a gabas da arewa, biyo bayan karkatar da yankin Ciudadela, wanda galibi ke kewaye da wuraren zama, yayin da bangaren arewa shi ne cibiyar bikin da ake amfani da ita a tsakanin sauran abubuwan sadaukarwa na dan Adam.

Wani muhimmin sashe na tsarin addinin Mesoamerican shine maimaita abin da suka yi imani da su a cikin takamaiman nau'i na zahiri, wanda hakan ya sa duniya ta zama siffar imaninsu. ^[1] Wannan yana nufin cewa an gina birnin Mesoamerican don zama ɗan ƙaramin abu, yana nuna irin wannan rarrabuwar da ta wanzu a cikin addini, tatsuniyar labarin ƙasa - rarrabuwa tsakanin ƙasa da duniyar ɗan adam. Ƙarƙashin ƙasa yana wakiltar alkiblar arewa kuma yawancin gine-gine da gine-gine masu alaƙa da duniyar ƙasa, kamar kaburbura, galibi ana samun su a cikin rabin arewacin birnin. Bangaren kudanci yana wakiltar rayuwa, arziƙi, da sake haifuwa kuma galibi yana ɗauke da tsare-tsare masu alaƙa da ci gaba da ayyukan yau da kullun na birni-jihar, kamar abubuwan tarihi waɗanda ke nuna zuriya masu daraja, ko wuraren zama, kasuwanni, da sauransu tsakanin kashi biyu na arewa. / axis axis ita ce filin wasa, sau da yawa yana ɗauke da steelae kama da bishiyar duniya ta Mesoamerican axis mundi, da filin wasan ƙwallon ƙafa wanda ya zama mashigar tsallaka tsakanin duniyoyin biyu.

Wasu Mesoamericanists suna jayayya cewa a cikin alamomin addini pyramids na Mesoamerica na gine-ginen gine-ginen dutse ne, stelae bishiyoyi ne, da rijiyoyi, ballcours da cenotes sune kogo waɗanda ke ba da damar shiga cikin ƙasa. ^[2]

Gabatarwa

Yawancin gine-ginen Mesoamerican ana tsara su don daidaitawa zuwa takamaiman abubuwan da suka faru na sama. Wasu pyramids, temples, da sauran sifofi an ƙera su don cimma tasirin haske na musamman a wasu ranaku masu mahimmanci a cikin duniyar Mesoamerican. Shahararren misali shine dala " El Castillo " a Chichen Itza, inda za'a iya ganin tasirin haske da inuwa a cikin makonni da yawa a kusa da equinoxes. Sabanin ra'ayi na kowa, duk da haka, babu wata shaida da ke nuna cewa wannan al'amari ya faru ne sakamakon wani tsari mai ma'ana da aka yi niyya don tunawa da ma'auni. ^[3]

Yawancin gine-ginen Mesoamerican kuma an daidaita su zuwa kusan 15° gabas na arewa. ^[4] Vincent H Malmstrom ya yi jayayya cewa wannan ya faru ne saboda babban buri na daidaita dala don fuskantar faɗuwar rana a ranar 13 ga Agusta, wanda shine farkon ranar kalandar Maya Long Count . Koyaya, bincike na baya-bayan nan ya nuna cewa farkon fuskantar faɗuwar rana a kan Agusta 13 (da Afrilu 30) yana faruwa a wajen yankin Maya. Manufar su dole ne ta kasance don yin rikodin kwanakin da aka raba ta tsawon kwanaki 260 (daga Agusta 13 zuwa Afrilu 30), daidai da tsayin ƙidayar kalandar Mesoamerican mai tsarki. Gabaɗaya, al'amuran a cikin gine-ginen Mesoamerican suna nuna alamar kwanakin da aka raba ta kwanaki 13 da 20, watau na ainihin lokutan tsarin kalandar. Rarraba waɗannan kwanakin a cikin shekara yana nuna cewa daidaitawar ta ba da damar yin amfani da kalandar lura wanda ya sauƙaƙe hasashen ranakun ayyukan gona. ^[5] Wadannan ƙaddamarwa suna goyan bayan sakamakon binciken da aka tsara a cikin yankuna daban-daban na Mesoamerican, ciki har da tsakiyar Mexico, da Maya Lowlands, Oaxaca, Gulf Coast lowlands, da yammacin Mesoamerica da arewacin Mesoamerica. Yayin da hasken rana ya mamaye, wasu fitattun gine-gine sun daidaita zuwa iyakar Venus, ^[6] babban misali shine fadar Gwamna a Uxmal. Haka kuma an rubuta hanyoyin da za a bi wajen tsayawa wata a sararin sama; ^[7] sun kasance musamman tare da bakin tekun Arewa maso Gabas na Yucatán Peninsula, inda bautar allahiya Ixchel, hade da wata, an san cewa yana da muhimmiyar mahimmanci a lokacin Postclassic.

Plaza

Kusan kowane sanannen tsohon birni na Mesoamerican yana da fale-falen jama'a ɗaya ko fiye. Yawanci manyan wurare ne masu ban sha'awa, kewaye da dogayen pyramids, temples, da sauran muhimman gine-gine. Ayyukan da za su gudana a waɗannan filayen za su haɗa da al'ada na sirri, kasuwanni na lokaci-lokaci, bukukuwan 'yan kallo, taron jama'a, bukukuwa, da sauran bukukuwan da suka shahara.

Girman manyan filaye a cikin biranen Mesoamerica ya bambanta sosai, mafi girma yana cikin Tenochtitlan tare da kimanin girman murabba'in mita 115,000. Wannan filin wasa ya yi fice saboda yawan mutanen birnin. Filin da aka kiyasta mafi girma na gaba yana cikin Tekun Fasha a cikin birnin Cempoala (ko Zempoala), yana auna murabba'in murabba'in 48,088. Yawancin plazas suna matsakaita a kusan murabba'in murabba'in 3,000, mafi ƙanƙanta yana a wurin Paxte wanda ke da murabba'in murabba'in 528. Wasu garuruwan sun ƙunshi ƙananan filaye a ko'ina, yayin da wasu ke mai da hankali kan babban babban filin wasa.

Tenochtitlan

Tenochtitlan birni ne na Aztec wanda ya bunƙasa daga 1325 zuwa 1521. An gina birnin a kan tsibiri, kewaye da tafkin Texcoco ta kowane bangare. Ya ƙunshi cikakken tsarin magudanar ruwa, magudanan ruwa, da hanyoyin da ke ba da damar birnin ya wadata mazaunansa. Tsibirin yana da fadin murabba'in kilomita 12 kuma yana da yawan jama'a kusan 125,000, wanda ya sa ya zama birni mafi girma na Mesoamerican da aka taɓa yin rikodin. Babban filin wasa na Tenochtitlan ya kasance kusan murabba'in murabba'in 115,000, ko kuma 11.5 ha (28 acres) . ^[8] Babban haikalin Tenochtitlan wanda aka fi sani da Templo Mayor ko Babban Haikali ya kasance mita 100 da mita 80 a gindinsa, kuma tsayin mita 60. ^[9] Garin daga ƙarshe ya faɗi a cikin 1521 lokacin da ɗan ƙasar Spain Hernán Cortés ya lalata shi a 1521. Cortés da Mutanen Espanya sun mamaye birnin don samar da zinare da kayan tarihi, sun bar kadan a baya na wayewar Aztec.

A babban magajin garin Templo na Tenochtitlan, masu binciken archaeologists sun gano cewa Aztec ya haɓaka haikalin sau bakwai, tare da ƙarin facades guda biyar, amma koyaushe suna kiyaye ainihin alamar dual na allahn ruwan sama Tlaloc da haraji / allahn yaƙi Huitzilopochtli. Masanin ilimin kimiya na kayan tarihi na Mexico Eduardo Matos Moctezuma ya nuna cewa al'ada da rayuwar al'ada na wannan wurin ibada na sarki sun haɗu da tsarin biyan harajin tilastawa daga ɗaruruwan al'ummomi tare da tsarin aikin gona da na'ura mai aiki da ƙarfi na samar da abinci.

Dala

Sau da yawa manyan haikalin addini suna zama a saman manyan dala, mai yiwuwa a matsayin wuri mafi kusa da sama. Yayin da binciken da aka yi a baya-bayan nan ya nuna yawan amfani da dala a matsayin kaburbura, haikalin da kansu ba safai ba, idan ba haka ba, sun ƙunshi binnewa. Zaune a saman dala, wasu na sama da ƙafa ɗari biyu, irin su a El Mirador, temples sun kasance masu ban sha'awa kuma sun yi ado da kansu. Wanda aka saba da shi da tsefewar rufin, ko bangon bango mai girma, waɗannan temples na iya zama nau'in farfaganda.

Dala na Rana

Pyramid na Rana shine tsari mafi girma da aka kirkira a birnin Teotihuacan kuma daya daga cikin manyan gine-gine a daukacin Yammacin Duniya. Yana tsaye a kusan ƙafa 216 kuma yana da kusan 720 by 760 ft (220 by 230 m) a gindinsa. Dala tana gefen gabas na hanyar matattu wanda ke kusan kusan tsakiyar birnin Teotihuacan. Bayan da masu binciken kayan tarihi suka gano ragowar dabbobi, masks, figurines, musamman ɗaya daga cikin gunkin Aztec Huehueteotl, da tukwane na tukwane a cikin dala, an amince da cewa dala mai yiwuwa wani haikalin al'ada ne a wani lokaci. ^[10]

Haikali na Macijin Feathered

An gina Haikali na Macijin Feathered bayan an kammala Dala na Rana da Dala na Wata . Haikalin yana nuna ɗaya daga cikin farkon amfani da tsarin gine-gine na talud-tablero . A saman, haikalin yana da zane-zane a kansu kamar yadda haikali da yawa da aka gina a lokaci guda kuma da mutane iri ɗaya. Teburin ya ƙunshi manyan kawunan macizai cike da ƙayyadaddun rigunan kai. Macijin fuka-fuki yana nufin allahn Aztec Quetzalcoatl .

Hotunan wasan ƙwallon ƙafa

Al'adar wasan ƙwallon ƙafa ta ƙasar Mesoamerika tafiya ce ta alama tsakanin duniyar ƙarƙashin ƙasa da duniyar masu rai, kuma ana samun ɗakunan ƙwallo da yawa a tsakiyar birnin suna aiki azaman haɗin kai tsakanin arewaci da kudancin birnin. ^[11] Duk sai dai manyan kotunan ƙwallon ƙafa sune gine-ginen masonry. Sama da kotunan ƙwallon ƙafa 1300 aka gano, kuma ko da yake akwai gagarumin bambancin girman, dukkansu suna da siffa ɗaya ta gaba ɗaya: doguwar ƴar ƴar ƴar ƴan leƙen asiri wadda ke gefen bango biyu tare da a kwance, karkace, da wasu lokuta a tsaye. Fuskokin da ke tsaye daga baya, irin su na Chichen Itza da El Tajin, galibi ana rufe su da hadaddun hotuna da wuraren sadaukarwar ɗan adam .

Ko da yake alley ɗin a filin wasan ƙwallon ƙafa a buɗe suke, daga baya kotunan ƙwallon ƙwallon sun rufe yankuna na ƙarshe, suna ba da tsarin</img> -siffa idan aka duba daga sama. Wurin wasan yana iya kasancewa a matakin ƙasa, ko kuma filin ƙwallon yana iya "ratse".

Kotunan ƙwallo ba ƙwararrun aikin injiniya ba ne. Ɗayan duwatsun dutsen yashi a filin wasan ƙwallon ƙafa na El Tajin yana da tsayin mita 11 kuma yana auna fiye da tan 10 . ^[12]

Wuraren zama da manyan wuraren zama

Manya-manyan kuma galibi ana yin ado sosai, gidajen sarauta galibi suna zama kusa da tsakiyar birni kuma suna ɗaukar manyan mutane. Duk wani babban gidan sarauta, ko wanda ya ƙunshi ɗakuna da yawa a matakai daban-daban ana iya kiransa acropolis. Duk da haka, sau da yawa waɗannan sun kasance bene ɗaya kuma sun ƙunshi ƙananan ɗakuna da yawa kuma yawanci aƙalla tsakar gida ɗaya; waɗannan gine-gine sun bayyana suna la'akari da ayyukan da ake buƙata na wurin zama, da kuma kayan ado da ake buƙata don girman mazaunan su.

Kamar dai masu binciken kayan tarihi sun yarda cewa manyan gidajen sarauta suna cikin kaburbura iri-iri. A Copán, a ƙarƙashin sama da shekaru ɗari huɗu na gyare-gyare, an gano wani kabari na ɗaya daga cikin tsoffin sarakuna kuma Arewacin Acropolis a Tikal ya kasance wurin da aka binne mutane da yawa a lokacin Terminal Pre-classic and Early Classic .

Kayan gini

Abu mafi ban mamaki na manyan gine-ginen Mesoamerican shine rashin yawan fasahar ci gaba da yawa waɗanda zasu zama dole don irin waɗannan gine-gine. Rashin kayan aikin ƙarfe, gine-ginen Mesoamerican yana buƙatar abu ɗaya mai yawa: ƙarfin mutum. Duk da haka, bayan wannan babban buƙatu, sauran kayan da alama sun kasance a shirye. Mafi sau da yawa suna amfani da farar ƙasa, wanda ya kasance mai jujjuya don yin aiki da kayan aikin dutse yayin da ake sassaƙa shi, kuma sau ɗaya kawai idan an cire shi daga gadonsa. Bugu da ƙari ga tsarin amfani da farar ƙasa, yawancin turmi nasu ya ƙunshi dakakke, konewa, da gauraye dutsen farar ƙasa wanda ya kwaikwayi kaddarorin siminti kuma an yi amfani da shi sosai don kammala stucco kamar yadda ake yin turmi. Duk da haka, daga baya ingantawa a cikin fasahohin kwarkwasa sun rage larura don wannan stucco-limestone yayin da duwatsun su suka fara dacewa sosai, duk da haka ya kasance muhimmiyar mahimmanci a wasu rufin bango da lintel .

Wani kayan gini na yau da kullun a tsakiyar Mexico shine tezontle (haske, dutsen mai aman wuta). An saba yin fado-fado da manyan gine-gine da wannan dutsen mai kaushi sannan a rufe shi da stucco ko kuma abin rufe fuska . An yi manyan kayan ado na gine-gine masu girma da kyan gani daga stucco (kalk), musamman a yankin Maya, inda kuma aka yi amfani da nau'in siminti ko siminti na hydraulic. ^[13] A cikin yanayin gidaje na gama gari, an yi amfani da ƙirar katako, adobe, da ciyayi don gina gidaje a kan tushen dutse. Duk da haka, an gano misalan abubuwan da suke kama da gidaje na farar ƙasa. Yawancin gine-ginen an gama su da manyan rufin rufin da aka gina da itace ko itace ko da yake ba a cika yin amfani da rufin dutse a cikin waɗannan manyan salo na zamani ba.

Salo

Megalithic

Dabarar gine-ginen gine-ginen da ke amfani da manyan busassun busassun tubalan dutse (c. 1 m × 50 cm × 30 cm) an rufe shi da wani lokacin farin ciki na stucco . Wannan salon ya kasance na kowa a cikin yankunan arewacin Maya daga Preclassic har zuwa farkon sassan Farko .

Talud-tablero

Pyramids a Mesoamerican sun kasance dala dala kuma da yawa sun yi amfani da salon da ake kira talud-tablero, wanda ya fara zama gama gari a Teotihuacan. Wannan salon ya ƙunshi tsarin dandali, ko kuma "tablero," a saman wani gangare "talud". Bambance-bambancen daban-daban akan salon talud-tablero sun taso a cikin Mesoamerica, haɓakawa da bayyana kanta daban a cikin al'adu daban-daban.

Salon Mayan Classic Period

Zane-zanen geometric na Puuc akan bangon babban haikalin Uxmal.

Palenque, Tikal, Copán, Tonina, da corbeled baka.

"Toltec" style

Chichén Itzá, Tula Hidalgo, chacmools, Atlantean Figures, Quetzalcoatl kayayyaki.

Puuc

Don haka mai suna bayan tuddai na Puuc wanda wannan salon ya haɓaka kuma ya bunƙasa a lokacin ƙarshen ƙarshen Late Classic da kuma cikin Terminal Classic a cikin tsaunukan Maya na arewacin Maya, gine-ginen Puuc ya ƙunshi dutsen da ke fuskantar dutsen da aka yi amfani da shi zuwa ainihin asali. Yawancin facade guda biyu an gina su, an raba su da dutsen dutse. Ƙarƙashin facade ɗin da ba kowa ba yana samuwa ta hanyar sassaƙaƙƙen duwatsun da aka sassaƙa kuma ana hatimi ta ƙofofin ƙofa. Bangaren sama an ƙawata shi sosai tare da maimaita tsarin geometric da abubuwa masu hoto, musamman ma abin rufe fuska na Chaac mai lankwasa hanci. Fassarar ginshiƙan ma na kowa.

Fasaha

Corbelled baka

Ka'idar "ƙarya" ko murɗaɗɗen baka ita ce gina shi ba tare da dutsen maɓalli ba, amma kawai tare da jeri na tubalan.

Al'adun Mesoamerican ba su taɓa ƙirƙira jigon maɓalli ba, don haka ba su iya gina bakuna na gaskiya, amma a maimakon haka, duk gine-ginen su sun yi amfani da “ƙarya” ko baka mai kwarjini . An gina waɗannan arches ba tare da tsakiya ba kuma ana iya gina su ba tare da tallafi ba, ta hanyar ƙaddamar da darussan kwance na bangon bango akai-akai. Irin wannan baka yana goyan bayan ƙarancin nauyi fiye da baka na gaskiya.

Duk da haka, aikin da injiniya James O'Kon ya yi na kwanan nan ya nuna cewa "baki" na Mesoamerican ba fasaha ba ne mai mahimmanci ba amma tsarin trapezium truss. Bugu da ƙari, ba kamar baka mai murɗa ba, baya dogara ga jeri-jeru na tubalan amma simintin da aka yi a wuri sau da yawa yana goyan bayan katakon katako. Binciken na'urar kwamfuta ya nuna wannan ya fi tsarin tsari fiye da baka mai lankwasa ^[14] </link>

Masana irin su David Eccott da Gordon Ekhholm suna jayayya cewa an san arches na gaskiya a zamanin Columbian a Mesoamerica; suna nuna misalai daban-daban na arches na gaskiya a wurin Maya a La Muneca, facade na Temple A a Nukum, ƙananan gidaje biyu a Tajin a Veracruz, wanka mai gumi a Chichen Itza, da baka a Oztuma. ^[15] ^[16] A cikin 2010, wani mutum-mutumi ya gano wata doguwar hanya mai rufin asiri a ƙarƙashin Pyramid na Quetzalcoatl, wanda ke tsaye a tsohon birnin Teotihuacan da ke arewacin birnin Mexico, wanda aka yi kwanan watan a shekara ta 200 AD.

Wuraren Tarihi na Duniya na UNESCO

An ware wasu mahimman wuraren binciken kayan tarihi masu wakiltar gine-ginen Mesoamerican a matsayin " wuraren tarihi na duniya " ta UNESCO . ^[17]

El Salvador

Joya de Cerén na Maya

Honduras

Maya Site na Copán

Guatemala

Tikal National Park
Parkeological Park da Ruins na Quirigua

Mexico

Pre-Hispanic City da National Park na Palenque
Garin Pre-Hispanic na Uxmal
Pre-Hispanic City na Teotihuacan
Cibiyar Tarihi ta Oaxaca da Cibiyar Archaeological na Monte Alban
Pre-Hispanic City na Chichen Itza
Yankin Monuments na Archaeological na Xochicalco, Morelos
El Tajin, Pre-Hispanic City na Veracruz
Tsohon garin Maya na Calakmul, Campeche
Cibiyar Tarihi ta Birnin Mexico da Xochimilco (tare da magajin gari na templo da haikalin da ke kusa) ^[18]
Agave Landscape da Tsohon Masana'antu na Tequila (tare da guachimonotones da kusa da wuraren al'adun teuchitlán ) ^[19]
Caves na Yagul da Mitla a cikin tsakiyar kwarin Oaxaca (tare da wurin binciken kayan tarihi na yagul ) ^[20]

Duba Sauran Bayanai

Maya architecture
Mayan Revival architecture
Maya city
Gine-gine da gine-gine a Mesoamerica
Triadic dala

Manazarta

↑ Mary Miller and Karl Taube, introduction to "The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya" p. 30.
↑ Mary Miller and Karl Taube write about this in their introduction to "The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya" pp. 31, they attribute this interpretation to Epigrapher David Stuart. American archeologist James E. Brady have done extensive research on importance of caves in Mesoamerican culture. The title of the famous book "Forest of Kings" by Mayanist Linda Schele also alludes to the Mayan belief that stelae represent trees, especially the world tree, axis mundi of the Mayan cosmos.
↑ Šprajc, Ivan; Sánchez Nava, Pedro Francisco (2018). "El Sol en Chichén Itzá y Dzibilchaltún: la supuesta importancia de los equinoccios en Mesoamérica". Arqueología Mexicana. 25 (149): 26–31.
↑ Aveni and Gibbs. Other researchers give other estimates or averages, but there is a remarkable consistency across time and space to this general orientation.
↑ Šprajc, Ivan (2018). "Astronomy, Architecture, and Landscape in Prehispanic Mesoamerica". Journal of Archaeological Research. 26 (2): 197–251. doi:10.1007/s10814-017-9109-z. S2CID 149439162.
↑ Šprajc, Ivan (1993). "The Venus-Rain-Maize Complex in the Mesoamerican World View: Part I" (PDF). Journal for the History of Astronomy. 24 (1–2): 17–70. Bibcode:1993JHA....24...17S. doi:10.1177/002182869302400102. S2CID 118585661.
↑ Šprajc, Ivan (2016). "Lunar alignments in Mesoamerican architecture" (PDF). Anthropological Notebooks. 22 (3): 61–85.
↑ Jarus, Owen (15 June 2017). "Tenochtitlan: History of Aztec Capital". Live Science. Live Science Contributor. Retrieved March 10, 2020.
↑ Alex, Bridget. "The Great Aztec Temple". Discover. Retrieved March 10, 2020.
↑ "The Pyramid of the Sun". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
↑ Muriel Porter Weaver describes this on pp. 226–28 of the third edition of "The Aztecs, Maya and their Predecessors".
↑ Wilkerson, p. 50.
↑ James A O'Kon, The Lost Secrets of Maya Technology Pompton Plaines: Career Press 2012, pp. 114–23
↑ James A. O'Kon, The Secrets of Maya Technology, Pompton Plains: New Page, 2012, pp. 149–50
↑ Schwerin, Karl. "The Arch in Mesoamerica" (in Turanci). Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
↑ Eccot, David J. "THE TRUE ARCH: AN ABSENT TRAIT IN PRECOLUMBIAN AMERICA?".
↑ The entire list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites can be found at their website
↑ "Historic Centre of Mexico City and Xochimilco". UNESCO World Heritage Centre (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-12-22.
↑ "Agave Landscape and Ancient Industrial Facilities of Tequila". UNESCO World Heritage Centre (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-12-22.
↑ "Prehistoric Caves of Yagul and Mitla in the Central Valley of Oaxaca". UNESCO World Heritage Centre (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-12-22.

[1] Mary Miller and Karl Taube, introduction to "The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya" p. 30.

[2] Mary Miller and Karl Taube write about this in their introduction to "The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya" pp. 31, they attribute this interpretation to Epigrapher David Stuart. American archeologist James E. Brady have done extensive research on importance of caves in Mesoamerican culture. The title of the famous book "Forest of Kings" by Mayanist Linda Schele also alludes to the Mayan belief that stelae represent trees, especially the world tree, axis mundi of the Mayan cosmos.

[3] Šprajc, Ivan; Sánchez Nava, Pedro Francisco (2018). "El Sol en Chichén Itzá y Dzibilchaltún: la supuesta importancia de los equinoccios en Mesoamérica". Arqueología Mexicana. 25 (149): 26–31.

[4] Aveni and Gibbs. Other researchers give other estimates or averages, but there is a remarkable consistency across time and space to this general orientation.

[5] Šprajc, Ivan (2018). "Astronomy, Architecture, and Landscape in Prehispanic Mesoamerica". Journal of Archaeological Research. 26 (2): 197–251. doi:10.1007/s10814-017-9109-z. S2CID 149439162.

[6] Šprajc, Ivan (1993). "The Venus-Rain-Maize Complex in the Mesoamerican World View: Part I" (PDF). Journal for the History of Astronomy. 24 (1–2): 17–70. Bibcode:1993JHA....24...17S. doi:10.1177/002182869302400102. S2CID 118585661.

[7] Šprajc, Ivan (2016). "Lunar alignments in Mesoamerican architecture" (PDF). Anthropological Notebooks. 22 (3): 61–85.

[8] Jarus, Owen (15 June 2017). "Tenochtitlan: History of Aztec Capital". Live Science. Live Science Contributor. Retrieved March 10, 2020.

[9] Alex, Bridget. "The Great Aztec Temple". Discover. Retrieved March 10, 2020.

[10] "The Pyramid of the Sun". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 11 March 2020.

[11] Muriel Porter Weaver describes this on pp. 226–28 of the third edition of "The Aztecs, Maya and their Predecessors".

[12] Wilkerson, p. 50.

[13] James A O'Kon, The Lost Secrets of Maya Technology Pompton Plaines: Career Press 2012, pp. 114–23

[14] James A. O'Kon, The Secrets of Maya Technology, Pompton Plains: New Page, 2012, pp. 149–50

[15] Schwerin, Karl. "The Arch in Mesoamerica" (in Turanci). Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[16] Eccot, David J. "THE TRUE ARCH: AN ABSENT TRAIT IN PRECOLUMBIAN AMERICA?".

[17] The entire list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites can be found at their website

[18] "Historic Centre of Mexico City and Xochimilco". UNESCO World Heritage Centre (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-12-22.

[19] "Agave Landscape and Ancient Industrial Facilities of Tequila". UNESCO World Heritage Centre (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-12-22.

[20] "Prehistoric Caves of Yagul and Mitla in the Central Valley of Oaxaca". UNESCO World Heritage Centre (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-12-22.

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