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Hanyar zamantakewa

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Hanyar zamantakewa
human behavior (en) Fassara da discipline (en) Fassara
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Ƙaramin ɓangare na rule (en) Fassara da conformity (en) Fassara
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Manifestation of (en) Fassara Al'ada
Hanyar zamantakewa a al umarmu

Ka'idojin zamantakewa sune ka'idojin da aka raba na halayyar da aka karɓa da ita ta kungiyoyi.[1] Ka'idojin zamantakewa na iya zama fahimtar al'ada wanda ke sarrafa halayyar membobin al'umma, da kuma sanya su cikin dokoki da dokoki.[2] Tasirin ka'idojin zamantakewa ko ka'idoji na zamantakewa, ana ɗaukar su masu iko na canje-canjen halayyar ɗan adam kuma an tsara su da kyau kuma an haɗa su da manyan ra'ayoyin da ke bayyana halayyar mutum.[3] Cibiyoyin suna kunshe da ka'idoji da yawa. Ka'idoji sune ra'ayoyin zamantakewa game da halayyar; saboda haka, sun bambanta da "ra'ayoyi", "hankali", da "daraja", waɗanda za a iya gudanar da su a asirce, kuma waɗanda ba lallai ba ne su shafi halayyar.[2] Ka'idoji sun dogara da mahallin, ƙungiyar zamantakewa, da yanayin tarihi.[4]

Masana sun bambanta tsakanin ka'idojin tsari (wanda ke hana halayyar), ka'idoji na tsarin mulki (wanda ke tsara abubuwan da ke da muhimmanci), da ka'idojoji na tsarawa (wanda ke ba da umarnin abin da 'yan wasan kwaikwayo ya kamata ya yi).[5][6][3] Za'a iya ƙayyade tasirin ka'idoji ta hanyar ma'anar dacewa da ma'anar sakamako; na farko yana nufin cewa 'yan wasan kwaikwayo suna bin ka'idojin saboda ya dace da zamantakewar al'umma, kuma na ƙarshe yana nufin cewa' yan wasan kwaikwayo suna bi ka'idojoji saboda lissafin farashi-amfanin.[7]

An gano matakai uku a cikin sake zagayowar rayuwa na al'ada: (1) fitowar al'ada - 'yan kasuwa na al'adu suna neman shawo kan wasu game da sha'awa da dacewa da wasu halaye; (2) Tsarin al'ada ya sami karɓa mai yawa; da kuma (3) Tsarin al'adu - lokacin da al'ada ta sami ingancin "an ɗauka-don-ba da aka ba da shi".[6]    Ka'idoji suna da ƙarfi zuwa matakai daban-daban: wasu ka'idoji galibi ana keta su yayin da wasu ka'idodin suna da zurfi sosai cewa keta ka'idojin ba su da yawa.[3] Za'a iya gano shaidar wanzuwar ka'idoji a cikin alamu na halayyar a cikin kungiyoyi, da kuma bayyana ka'idojin a cikin jawabin rukuni.[2][8]

Ma'ana

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Girgiza hannu bayan wasan wasanni misali ne na al'ada ta zamantakewa.

Akwai ma'anoni daban-daban na ka'idojin zamantakewa, amma akwai yarjejeniya tsakanin malamai cewa ka'idoji sune: [9]

  1. zamantakewa da rabawa tsakanin membobin rukuni,
  2. da ke da alaƙa da halaye da yanke shawara,
  3. haramtacciya ko umarni
  4. Hanyar rayuwa mai karɓa ta hanyar jama'a ta ƙungiyar mutane a cikin al'umma.

A cikin 1965, Jack P. Gibbs ya gano mahimman ma'auni guda uku waɗanda za a iya haɗa duk ra'ayoyin ka'idoji a ƙarƙashin:

  1. "bincike na hadin gwiwa game da abin da ya kamata ya zama"
  2. "tsinkaye na hadin gwiwa game da abin da hali zai kasance"
  3. "matsayi na musamman ga halayyar" (ciki har da yunkurin izini ko haifar da wasu halayen) [10]

A cewar Ronald Jepperson, Peter Katzenstein da Alexander Wendt, "ka'idoji sune tsammanin hadin gwiwa game da halayyar da ta dace don ainihin abin da aka ba shi. " Wayne Sandholtz yana jayayya da wannan ma'anar, yayin da ya rubuta cewa tsammanin da aka raba sakamako ne na ka'idoji, ba ingancin ka'idojin ba. Sandholtz, Martha Finnemore da Kathryn Sikkink sun bayyana ka'idoji a maimakon haka a matsayin "ka'idojin halayyar da ta dace ga 'yan wasan kwaikwayo tare da ainihi. " A cikin wannan ma'anar, ka'idojin suna da ingancin "mahimmanci".[6][6]

Michael Hechter da Karl-Dieter Opp sun bayyana ka'idoji a matsayin "al'adun al'adu waɗanda ke ba da umarni da hana halayyar a takamaiman yanayi. " Masana ilimin zamantakewa Christine Horne da Stefanie Mollborn sun bayyana ka-idoji a cikin "ƙididdigar halayyar rukuni". [11] ya haɗa da cewa ka'idojin suna da tsammanin amincewar jama'a ko rashin amincewa da halayyar. Masana suna muhawara ko ka'idojin zamantakewa gine-gine ne na mutum ko gine-gine na rukuni.[9]

Masanin tattalin arziki kuma masanin wasan kwaikwayo Peyton Young ya bayyana ka'idoji a matsayin "alamu na halayyar da ke tilasta kansu a cikin rukuni". [4] jaddada cewa ka'idojin suna motsawa ne ta hanyar tsammanin da aka raba: "Kowane mutum ya dace, ana sa ran kowa ya dace, kuma kowa yana so ya dace lokacin da suke tsammanin kowa ya dace". Ya nuna ka'idoje a matsayin na'urorin da ke "daidaita tsammanin mutane a cikin hulɗar da yawa".

Ka'idoji irin su "taron", "al'adu", "daidaitawa", "doka", "dokoki", da "dokoki" an nuna su daidai da ka'idoji.[10] Ana iya la'akari da cibiyoyin tarin ko tarin ka'idoji da yawa.[6] Dokoki da ka'idoji ba lallai bane su bambanta: duka biyun ka'idojin hali ne waɗanda zasu iya samun matakai daban-daban na takamaiman da tsari.[11] Dokoki wani nau'i ne na ka'idoji. [3] Dokoki, dokoki da ka'idoji na iya kasancewa da bambanci; alal misali, doka na iya hana wani abu amma ka'idojin har yanzu suna ba da izini.[4] Ka'idoji ba daidai ba ne da haɗuwa da halayen mutum.[12] Ra'ayoyi, halayen da dabi'u ba lallai bane su zama ka'idoji, saboda waɗannan ra'ayoyin ba lallai ba ne su shafi halayyar kuma ana iya gudanar da su a asirce.[4] "Halin da ya dace" da halayyar halayyar ba lallai bane su zama ka'idoji.[4][9] Halin halitta ko halayen halitta, dandano na mutum, da halaye na mutum ba lallai bane su zama ka'idoji.[9][9]

Fitowa da watsawa

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Ƙungiyoyi na iya karɓar ƙa'idodi ta hanyoyi da yawa.

Wasu ka'idoji masu ɗorewa da ƙarfafa kansu na iya fitowa ba tare da ƙirar ɗan adam ba.[13] Peyton Young ya kai ga cewa "ka'idoji yawanci suna canzawa ba tare da jagorancin sama da ƙasa ba... ta hanyar hulɗar mutane maimakon ta hanyar ƙira. " Ka'idoji na iya bunkasa ba bisa ka'ida ba, suna fitowa sannu a hankali sakamakon maimaita amfani da motsa jiki don sarrafa halayyar. [4][14][15] Ba lallai ba ne a rubuta dokoki, ka'idoji na al'ada suna wakiltar al'amuran da aka yarda da su gabaɗaya kuma an ba da izini ga mutane a rayuwar yau da kullun.[16] Wadannan ka'idoji na al'ada, idan sun karya, bazai gayyaci hukunce-hukuncen doka ba ko takunkumi, amma a maimakon haka suna ƙarfafa tsawatawa, gargadi, ko wani abu; jima'i, alal misali, ana tunanin shi ba daidai ba ne a cikin al'umma, amma yawancin hukunce-duki ba su hana shi bisa doka ba.

Hakanan ana iya ƙirƙirar ƙa'idodi kuma ana ci gaba da su ta hanyar ƙirar ɗan adam ta hanyar 'Yan kasuwa na yau da kullun.[17] Ka'idoji na iya tasowa a hukumance, inda kungiyoyi a bayyane suke tsarawa da aiwatar da tsammanin halayyar. Ka'idojin shari'a yawanci suna fitowa ne daga ƙira.[18] Yawancin waɗannan ƙa'idodin da muke bi 'daidai' kamar tuki a gefen dama na hanya a Amurka da gefen hagu a Burtaniya, ko kuma kada mu hanzarta don kauce wa tikiti.

Martha Finnemore da Kathryn Sikkink sun gano matakai uku a cikin rayuwar al'ada: [6]

  1. Bayyanawa na al'ada: 'Yan kasuwa na al'umma suna neman shawo kan wasu su karɓi ra'ayoyinsu game da abin da ake so da kuma ya dace
  2. Tsarin tsari: Lokacin da al'ada ke da karɓa mai yawa kuma ya kai ga matsayi, tare da shugabannin al'ada suna matsawa wasu su karɓi kuma su bi al'ada
  3. Tsarin ciki na al'ada: Lokacin da al'ada ta sami ingancin "an ɗauka-da-ba da kyauta" inda bin al'ada kusan ta atomatik

Suna jayayya cewa dalilai da yawa na iya haɓaka tasirin wasu ka'idoji: [6]

  • Halatta: 'Yan wasan kwaikwayo da ba su da tabbaci game da matsayinsu da sunayensu na iya zama mafi kusantar bin ka'idoji
  • Shahararren: Ka'idojin da 'yan wasan kwaikwayo ke riƙe da su kamar yadda ake so da kuma nasara suna iya yadawa ga wasu
  • Halaye na asali na al'ada: Ka'idojin da ke da takamaiman, na dogon lokaci, da na duniya sun fi zama sanannun
  • Dogaro da hanyar: Ka'idojin da ke da alaƙa da ka'idojin leken da suka gabata suna iya karɓar su a ko'ina
  • Yanayin lokaci na duniya: Tsinkaye na tsarin (kamar yaƙe-yaƙe, juyin juya hali da rikice-rikicen tattalin arziki) na iya haifar da neman sabbin ka'idoji

Christina Horne da Stefanie Mollborn sun gano manyan nau'o'i biyu na muhawara don fitowar ka'idoji: [11]

  1. Sakamakon: ana kirkirar ka'idoji lokacin da halayyar mutum ke da sakamako da abubuwan waje ga sauran mambobin kungiyar.
  2. Dangantaka: ana kirkirar ka'idoji saboda mutane suna so su jawo hankalin halayen zamantakewa masu kyau. A wasu kalmomi, ka'idoji ba lallai ba ne su ba da gudummawa ga amfanin jama'a.

Ta hanyar sakamako, ka'idoji suna ba da gudummawa ga amfanin jama'a. Koyaya, ta hanyar dangantaka, ƙa'idodi ba lallai ba ne su ba da gudummawa ga amfanin jama'a; ƙa'idori na iya zama masu cutarwa ga jama'a.[11]

Wasu malamai sun bayyana ka'idoji a matsayin marasa daidaituwa, don haka samar da yiwuwar canjin ka'idojin.[19][20] A cewar Wayne Sandholtz, 'yan wasan kwaikwayo sun fi shawo kan wasu su canza ka'idojin da ke akwai idan suna da iko, za su iya ambaton ka'idoji na tushe, kuma za su iya yin nuni da abubuwan da suka gabata. An nuna kusanci tsakanin 'yan wasan kwaikwayo a matsayin babban bangare wajen kiyaye ka'idojin zamantakewa.[21]

Canja wurin ka'idoji tsakanin kungiyoyi

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Kowane mutum na iya shigo da ka'idoji daga ƙungiyar da ta gabata zuwa sabon rukuni, wanda za'a iya karɓa a tsawon lokaci.[22][23] Ba tare da wata alama ta yadda za a yi ba, mutane yawanci suna dogaro da tarihin su don tantance mafi kyawun hanyar gaba; abin da ya ci nasara a baya zai iya sake ba su hidima. A cikin rukuni, mutane na iya shigo da tarihi daban-daban ko rubutun game da halayen da suka dace; kwarewar gama gari a tsawon lokaci zai jagoranci rukuni don bayyana gaba ɗaya ɗaukarsa a kan aikin da ya dace, yawanci tare da haɗa tsarin membobin da yawa.[2] A karkashin tsarin shigo da kayayyaki, tsari na al'ada yana faruwa a hankali da sauri yayin da tare da ci gaban al'ada ko na al'adu na al'umma na iya ɗaukar lokaci mai tsawo.[2]

Ƙungiyoyi suna amfani da ka'idoji ta hanyar karɓar su a matsayin ka'idojin da suka dace don halayyar a cikin rukuni. Da zarar an kafa shi sosai, al'ada ta zama wani ɓangare na tsarin aiki na rukuni kuma saboda haka ya fi wuya a canza. Duk da yake yana yiwuwa ga sababbin mutane zuwa rukuni su canza ka'idodinsu, yana da mahimmanci cewa sabon mutum zai karɓi ka'idodi, dabi'u, da ra'ayoyin rukuni, maimakon ta wata hanya.[14]

Karkatarwa daga ka'idojin zamantakewa

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"Al'ada = mummunar kalma", rubutun a Ljubljana, Slovenia

An bayyana karkatarwa a matsayin "rashin bin ka'idojin da mutane da yawa a cikin al'umma ko al'umma suka yarda da su" [24] A sauƙaƙe, idan membobin rukuni ba su bi ka'ida ba, ana kiransu mai karkatarwa. A cikin wallafe-wallafen zamantakewa, wannan na iya haifar da cewa ana daukar su a matsayin wadanda aka fitar da su daga al'umma. Duk da haka, ana sa ran halayyar karkatarwa tsakanin yara. Sai dai ra'ayin wannan karkatarwa da ke bayyana a matsayin aikata laifi, haƙuri na zamantakewa da aka bayar a cikin misalin yaro an cire shi da sauri a kan mai laifi. Laifi ana ɗaukarsa ɗaya daga cikin mafi girman nau'ikan karkatarwa bisa ga masanin Clifford R. Shaw.[25]

Abin da ake la'akari da "al'ada" yana da al'adu da wurin al'ada inda hulɗar zamantakewa ke faruwa. A cikin ilimin halayyar dan adam, mutumin da ke rashin biyayya ga ka'idojin rukuni yana da haɗarin juya zuwa cikin "mai karkatarwa. " Kamar ma'anar zamantakewar al'umma, wasu membobin rukuni na iya yin hukunci da masu karkatarwa saboda gazawar su bi ka'idoji. Da farko, membobin rukuni na iya ƙara matsin lamba ga wanda ba ya bin doka, yana ƙoƙarin shigar da mutum cikin tattaunawa ko bayyana dalilin da ya sa ya kamata ya bi tsammanin halayensu. Matsayin da mutum ke yanke shawara kan ko ya kamata ya nuna ko a'a an ƙaddara shi ne akan yadda ayyukansu za su shafi wasu.[26] Musamman tare da sabbin mambobi waɗanda watakila ba su san wani abu mafi kyau ba, ƙungiyoyi na iya amfani da motsa jiki don dawo da halayyar mutum cikin layi. Bayan lokaci, duk da haka, idan membobin suka ci gaba da yin rashin biyayya, ƙungiyar za ta ba da kansu a matsayin dalilin da ya ɓace; yayin da ƙungiyar ba lallai ba ne ta soke membobinsu, suna iya ba su la'akari kawai.[14] Idan ma'aikaci ya makara zuwa taron, alal misali, ya saba wa ka'idar ofishin na lokaci-lokaci, mai kula ko wani abokin aiki na iya jira mutum ya isa ya janye shi daga baya don ya tambayi abin da ya faru. Idan halin ya ci gaba, a ƙarshe ƙungiyar na iya fara tarurruka ba tare da shi ba tunda mutum "yana da jinkiri koyaushe". Ƙungiyar tana nuna rashin biyayya ga mutum kuma nan da nan ta watsar da shi, don haka rage tasirin memba da kuma kafa a cikin rashin jituwa na rukuni na gaba.

Halin haƙuri na rukuni don karkatarwa ya bambanta a duk membobin rukuni; ba duk membobin ƙungiyar da ke karɓar magani iri ɗaya don keta ka'idoji ba. Kowane mutum na iya gina "tsarin" halin kirki ta hanyar daidaituwa, wanda za su iya aro daga baya. Wadannan ƙididdigar idiosyncrasy suna ba da kuɗin da aka yi amfani da shi don fahimtar bambance-bambance a cikin tsammanin halayyar rukuni.[27] malami, alal misali, na iya gafarta wa ɗalibi madaidaiciya-A don mummunar hali - wanda ya sami "kyauta" da ta gabata - fiye da ɗalibi mai rikitarwa akai-akai. Duk da yake aikin da ya gabata na iya taimakawa wajen gina ƙididdigar idiosyncrasy, wasu membobin rukuni suna da ma'auni mafi girma don farawa da.[1] Kowane mutum na iya shigo da ƙididdigar idiosyncrasy daga wani rukuni; tauraron fina-finai na yara, alal misali, waɗanda suka yi rajista a kwaleji, na iya samun ƙarin damar karɓar ka'idojin makaranta fiye da sauran sabbin ɗalibai masu shigowa. A ƙarshe, Shugabannin ko mutane a wasu manyan mukamai na iya farawa da ƙarin ƙididdiga kuma ya bayyana "sama da dokoki" a wasu lokuta. [1] [14] Ko da ƙididdigar su na idiosyncrasy ba su da tushe, duk da haka; yayin da aka riƙe su da daidaitattun daidaito fiye da matsakaicin memba, shugabannin na iya fuskantar ƙin yarda da rukuni idan rashin biyayya ya zama mai tsanani.

Karkatarwa kuma yana haifar da motsin rai da yawa wanda mutum ke fuskanta lokacin da yake tafiya a kan al'ada. Ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan motsin zuciyar da aka danganta da karkatarwa shine laifi. Laifi yana da alaƙa da ka'idojin aiki wanda hakan ya zama babban abu na wajibin ɗabi'a. Laifin yana biye da wani mataki wanda ake tambaya bayan an yi shi.[28] Ana iya bayyana shi a matsayin wani abu mara kyau ga kai da kuma mummunan yanayin ji. An yi amfani da shi a lokuta biyu, yana da mummunan jin daɗi da kuma wani nau'i na azabtar da kai. Yin amfani da kwatanci na "hannuwa marasa tsarki", shine shafawa ko lalata kansa sabili da haka dole ne ya tsabtace kansa.[29] Wani nau'i ne na ramawa wanda ke fuskantar kansa da kuma miƙa wuya ga yiwuwar fushi da azabtarwa daga wasu. Laifi wani batu ne a cikin aiki da jin daɗi wanda ke aiki a matsayin motsawa don ƙarin ayyukan "Mai daraja".

Wani binciken da aka yi a 2023 ya gano cewa Al'ummomin da ba na masana'antu ba sun bambanta a cikin hukunce-hukuncen su na keta ka'idoji. Hukunce-hukunce ya bambanta bisa ga nau'ikan keta ka'idoji da tsarin zamantakewa da tattalin arziki na al'umma. Binciken "ya sami shaidar cewa azabtarwa ta suna tana da alaƙa da daidaito da rashin ajiyar abinci; azabtarwa na kayan aiki tana da alaƙar kasancewar ajiyar abinci: azabtarwa a jiki tana da alaƙanci da dogaro da farauta; kuma hukuncin kisa yana da alaƙa ta hanyar zamantakewa. "[30]

Ɗabi'a

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Ganin cewa ra'ayoyi gabaɗaya ba lallai bane su sami tasirin halayyar, Martha Finnemore ta lura cewa "ka'idoji ta hanyar ma'anar sun shafi halayyar. Mutum na iya cewa suna da ra'ayoyin gaba ɗaya game da halayyar".

Ka'idojin da ke adawa da halayen al'umma ko al'adu na yau da kullun ana iya watsa su kuma ana kiyaye su a cikin ƙananan ƙungiyoyi na al'umma. Misali, Crandall (1988) ya lura cewa wasu kungiyoyi (misali, ƙungiyoyin masu gaisuwa, ƙungiyoyin rawa, ƙungiyoyin wasanni, ƙungiyoyi) suna da ƙimar bulimia, cuta mai barazana ga rayuwa, wanda ya fi girma fiye da al'umma gaba ɗaya. Ka'idojin zamantakewa suna da hanyar kiyaye tsari da shirya kungiyoyi.[31]

A fannin ilimin halayyar jama'a, ana jaddada matsayin ka'idoji - wanda zai iya jagorantar halayyar a cikin wani yanayi ko yanayi a matsayin " wakilcin tunani na halayyar da ta dace".[32] An nuna cewa sakonnin ka'idoji na iya inganta halayyar zamantakewa, gami da rage amfani da barasa, [33] kara yawan masu jefa kuri'a, [34] da rage amfani ga makamashi. [35] Dangane da ma'anar ilimin halayyar al'amuran zamantakewa, al'amarin suna da nau'o'i biyu: yawan halayyar da ake nunawa, da kuma yawan halayar da kungiyar ta amince da wannan halayyar.[36]

Kula da zamantakewa

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Kodayake ba a dauke su a matsayin dokoki na al'umma ba, ka'idoji har yanzu suna aiki don inganta ikon zamantakewa mai yawa. Magana ce da ke tsara hali. Al'adun al'adu wanda shine al'ada shine mai ba da umarnin halayyar da aka yarda da ita a takamaiman lokuta. Ya kasance a cikin bambance-bambance dangane da al'ada, kabilanci, addini, da kuma wurin ƙasa, shine tushe na kalmomin da wasu suka sani kamar yadda ba za su cutar da wasu ba, mulkin zinariya, da kuma kiyaye alkawuran da aka yi alkawari. Ba tare da su ba, za a sami duniya ba tare da yarjejeniya ba, ƙasa ɗaya, ko ƙuntatawa. Kodayake doka da dokokin jihar ba a yi niyyar sarrafa ka'idojin zamantakewa ba, al'umma da doka suna da alaƙa kuma ɗayan yana nuna ɗayan. Wannan shine dalilin da ya sa aka ce yaren da aka yi amfani da shi a wasu dokoki yana sarrafawa da kuma tsara abin da ya kamata ko bai kamata a karɓa ba. Misali, an ce aikata laifuka game da jima'i na iyali don kare wadanda ke da rauni, duk da haka har ma da manya masu yarda ba za su iya yin jima'i da danginsu ba. Harshen da ke kewaye da waɗannan dokoki yana isar da saƙon cewa irin waɗannan ayyukan suna da lalata kuma ya kamata a hukunta su, duk da cewa babu ainihin wanda aka azabtar a cikin waɗannan dangantakar da aka yarda.

Ana iya aiwatar da ka'idojin zamantakewa a hukumance (misali, ta hanyar takunkumi) ko kuma ba bisa ka'ida ba (misali، ta hanyar yaren jiki da alamun sadarwa marasa magana). [37] Saboda mutane galibi suna samun albarkatun jiki ko na tunani daga membobin rukuni, ana cewa ƙungiyoyi suna sarrafa abubuwan da ke motsawa; ƙungiyoyi na iya hanawa ko ba da ƙarin albarkatu don mayar da martani ga bin membobin ga ƙa'idodin rukuni, yadda ya kamata suna sarrafa halayyar memba ta hanyar lada da yanayin aiki.[14] Binciken Ilimin halayyar jama'a ya gano yawan dabi'un mutum da ke kula da albarkatun rukuni ko kuma yawan mutum yana ganin membobin rukuni a matsayin tsakiya ga ma'anar kansa, mai yiwuwa ya dace.[2] Ka'idojin zamantakewa kuma suna bawa mutum damar tantance abin da halayen da ƙungiyar ke ganin yana da mahimmanci ga wanzuwarsa ko tsira, tunda suna wakiltar tsarin imani; ƙungiyoyi gabaɗaya ba sa azabtar da membobin ko ƙirƙirar ka'idoji akan ayyukan da ba sa kula da su sosai.[2][22] Ka'idoji a cikin kowane al'ada suna haifar da daidaituwa wanda ke ba mutane damar zama masu zaman kansu ga al'adun da suke zaune.[38]

A matsayin masu zaman kansu, mutane suna koyon lokacin da kuma inda ya dace a faɗi wasu abubuwa, don amfani da wasu kalmomi, don tattauna wasu batutuwa ko sa wasu tufafi, da kuma lokacin da ba haka ba. Don haka, ilimin game da ka'idojin al'adu yana da mahimmanci ga Ra'ayoyi, wanda shine tsarin mutum game da halayensu na magana. Mutum kuma ya zo ya san ta hanyar gogewa irin irin mutanen da zai iya kuma ba zai iya tattauna wasu batutuwa ba tare da ko sanya wasu nau'ikan tufafi a kusa. Yawanci, ana samun wannan ilimin ta hanyar gogewa (watau ana koyon ka'idojin zamantakewa ta hanyar hulɗar zamantakewa). [1] Sa tufafi zuwa hira da aiki don ba da babban ra'ayi na farko yana wakiltar misali na al'ada a cikin ma'aikatan fararen ma'aikata.

A cikin aikinsa "Order without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes", Robert Ellickson yayi nazarin ma'amala daban-daban tsakanin membobin unguwa da al'ummomi don nuna yadda ka'idojin al'umma ke haifar da tsari a cikin ƙaramin rukuni na mutane. Ya yi jayayya cewa, a cikin ƙaramin al'umma ko unguwa, ana iya warware dokoki da rikice-rikice da yawa ba tare da wata kungiya mai kula ba kawai ta hanyar hulɗa a cikin waɗannan al'ummomin.

Ilimin zamantakewa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin ilimin zamantakewa, ana ganin ka'idoji a matsayin ka'idojin da ke ɗaure ayyukan mutum zuwa takamaiman takamaiman hukunci a cikin ɗaya daga cikin nau'o'i biyu: hukunci ko lada. Ta hanyar tsara halayyar, ka'idojin zamantakewa suna ƙirƙirar alamu na musamman waɗanda ke ba da damar rarrabe halaye tsakanin tsarin zamantakewa.[1] Wannan yana haifar da iyaka wanda ke ba da damar bambanci tsakanin waɗanda ke cikin takamaiman yanayin zamantakewa da waɗanda ba su da.[1][39]

Ga Talcott Parsons na makarantar mai aiki, ka'idoji suna nuna hulɗar mutane a duk abubuwan da suka faru. A gefe guda, Karl Marx ya yi imanin cewa ana amfani da ka'idoji don inganta kirkirar Matsayi a cikin al'umma wanda ke ba da damar mutane na matakai daban-daban na tsarin zamantakewar al'umma su iya aiki yadda ya kamata.[38] Marx ya yi iƙirarin cewa wannan ƙarfin iko yana haifar da tsarin zamantakewa. James Coleman (masanin ilimin zamantakewa) ya yi amfani da yanayin micro da macro don ka'idarsa. Ga Coleman, ka'idoji sun fara ne a matsayin ayyukan da aka tsara ta hanyar 'yan wasan kwaikwayo a matakin micro.[2] Idan fa'idodin ba su wuce farashin aikin ga 'yan wasan kwaikwayo ba, to, al'ada ta zamantakewa za ta fito.[2] Ana ƙayyade tasirin ka'idar ta hanyar ikon aiwatar da takunkumin ta a kan waɗanda ba za su ba da gudummawa ga "mafi kyawun tsarin zamantakewa ba".[2][39]

Heinrich Popitz ya gamsu cewa kafa ka'idojin zamantakewa, wanda ke sa ayyukan canji na gaba su kasance a bayyane ga son kai, yana warware matsalar gaggawa (Niklas Luhmann). Ta wannan hanyar, son kai na iya dogaro da waɗancan ayyukan kamar dai an riga an yi su kuma ba lallai ba ne su jira don ainihin kisa; don haka ana hanzarta hulɗar zamantakewa. Muhimman abubuwan da ke cikin daidaita halayyar sune takunkumi [40] da matsayi na zamantakewa.

Yanayin aiki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ana tattauna yiwuwar waɗannan halaye su sake faruwa a cikin ka'idodin B. F. Skinner, wanda ya bayyana cewa yanayin aiki yana taka rawa a cikin tsarin ci gaban al'ada na zamantakewa. Tsarin aiki shine tsarin da ake canza halayen a matsayin aikin sakamakonsu. Ana iya ƙarawa ko rage yiwuwar cewa wani hali zai faru dangane da sakamakon wannan hali.

A cikin yanayin karkatar da zamantakewa, mutumin da ya saba wa al'ada zai tuntubi mummunan abubuwan da ke tattare da karkatar, wannan na iya ɗaukar nau'in zargi na al'ada ko na al'umma, warewar jama'a ko zargi, ko ƙarin hukunci na ainihi kamar tarar ko ɗaurin kurkuku. Idan mutum ya rage halin da ya dace bayan ya sami mummunan sakamako, to sun koyi ta hanyar azabtarwa. Idan sun shiga cikin halayyar da ta dace da al'ada ta zamantakewa bayan an rage motsi mai banƙyama, to sun koyi ta hanyar ƙarfafawa mara kyau. Ƙarfafawa yana ƙara halayyar, yayin da azabtarwa ke rage halayyar.

A matsayin misali na wannan, la'akari da yaro wanda ya zana a bangon gidanta, idan ba ta taɓa yin hakan ba kafin ta nemi amsawa daga mahaifiyarta ko mahaifinta nan da nan. Hanyar martani da mahaifiyar ko uba ta dauka zai shafi ko halin zai iya sake faruwa a nan gaba. Idan iyayenta suna da kyau kuma suna amincewa da halayyar zai iya sake faruwa (ƙarfafawa) duk da haka, idan iyaye suna ba da sakamako mai banƙyama (hargitsi na jiki, lokaci-ƙarshe, fushi da sauransu...) to yaron ba zai iya maimaita halayyar a nan gaba (hargami).

Skinner ya kuma bayyana cewa mutane suna da alaƙa tun suna ƙuruciya game da yadda za su yi aiki da kuma yadda za suyi aiki tare da waɗanda ke kewaye da mu la'akari da tasirin waje na al'umma da wurin da mutum yake ciki.[41][42] An gina shi don haɗuwa da yanayin da halin da ke kewaye da mu, karkatarwa ba ta da kyau a kan aiki.

Ka'idar mayar da hankali ga halayyar ka'ida

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Cialdini, Reno, da Kallgren sun haɓaka ka'idar mayar da hankali ga halayyar al'ada don bayyana yadda mutane ke haɗuwa da tsammanin halayyar da yawa a lokaci guda. Da yake fadada ra'ayoyin da suka gabata game da ko al'adu, yanayi ko ka'idojin mutum suna motsawa, masu bincike sun ba da shawarar mayar da hankali ga hankalin mutum zai nuna abin da ake tsammani.[43]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Lapinski, M. K.; Rimal, R. N. (2005). "An explication of social norms". Communication Theory. 15 (2): 127–147. doi:10.1093/ct/15.2.127.
  2. ↑ Pristl, A-C; Kilian, S; Mann, A. (2020). "When does a social norm catch the worm? Disentangling socialnormative influences on sustainable consumption behaviour". Consumer Behav. 20 (3): 635–654. doi:10.1002/cb.1890. S2CID 228807152.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Legro, Jeffrey W. (1997). "Which Norms Matter? Revisiting the "Failure" of Internationalism". International Organization. 51 (1): 31–63. doi:10.1162/002081897550294. ISSN 0020-8183. JSTOR 2703951. S2CID 154368865. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":2" defined multiple times with different content
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Young, H. Peyton (2015). "The Evolution of Social Norms". Annual Review of Economics (in Turanci). 7 (1): 359–387. doi:10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115322. ISSN 1941-1383. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":8" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ Tannenwald, Nina (1999). "The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Normative Basis of Nuclear Non-Use". International Organization. 53 (3): 433–468. doi:10.1162/002081899550959. ISSN 0020-8183. JSTOR 2601286.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Finnemore, Martha; Sikkink, Kathryn (1998). "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change". International Organization. 52 (4): 887–917. doi:10.1162/002081898550789. ISSN 0020-8183. JSTOR 2601361. S2CID 10950888. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":1" defined multiple times with different content
  7. ↑ Herrmann, Richard K.; Shannon, Vaughn P. (2001). "Defending International Norms: The Role of Obligation, Material Interest, and Perception in Decision Making". International Organization. 55 (3): 621–654. doi:10.1162/00208180152507579. ISSN 0020-8183. JSTOR 3078659. S2CID 145661726. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  8. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :3
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Legros, Sophie; Cislaghi, Beniamino (2020). "Mapping the Social-Norms Literature: An Overview of Reviews". Perspectives on Psychological Science (in Turanci). 15 (1): 62–80. doi:10.1177/1745691619866455. ISSN 1745-6916. PMC 6970459. PMID 31697614. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":7" defined multiple times with different content
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Gibbs, Jack P. (1965). "Norms: The Problem of Definition and Classification". American Journal of Sociology. 70 (5): 586–594. doi:10.1086/223933. ISSN 0002-9602. JSTOR 2774978. PMID 14269217. S2CID 27377450. Archived from the original on 2021-12-23. Retrieved 2021-12-23. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":10" defined multiple times with different content
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Horne, Christine; Mollborn, Stefanie (2020). "Norms: An Integrated Framework". Annual Review of Sociology (in Turanci). 46 (1): 467–487. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054658. ISSN 0360-0572. S2CID 225435025. Archived from the original on 2021-05-16. Retrieved 2021-05-22. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":6" defined multiple times with different content
  12. ↑ Horne, Christine; Johnson, Monica Kirkpatrick (2021). "Testing an Integrated Theory: Distancing Norms in the Early Months of Covid-19". Sociological Perspectives (in Turanci). 64 (5): 970–987. doi:10.1177/07311214211005493. ISSN 0731-1214.
  13. ↑ Sugden, Robert (1989). "Spontaneous Order". Journal of Economic Perspectives (in Turanci). 3 (4): 85–97. doi:10.1257/jep.3.4.85. ISSN 0895-3309.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Hackman, J.R. (1992). "Group influences on individuals in organizations". In M.D. Dunnette & L.M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 3). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 234-245.
  15. ↑ Chong, D. (2000) Rational lives: norms and values in politics and society
  16. ↑ Gerber, L. & Macionis, J. (2011) Sociology, 7th Canadian ed., p. 65
  17. ↑ Sunstein, Cass R. (1996). "Social Norms and Social Roles" (PDF). Columbia Law Review. 96 (4): 903–968. doi:10.2307/1123430. ISSN 0010-1958. JSTOR 1123430. S2CID 153823271.
  18. ↑ Kendall, D. (2011) Sociology in our times
  19. ↑ Sandholtz, Wayne (2008-03-01). "Dynamics of International Norm Change: Rules against Wartime Plunder". European Journal of International Relations (in Turanci). 14 (1): 101–131. doi:10.1177/1354066107087766. ISSN 1354-0661. S2CID 143721778. Archived from the original on 2021-05-24. Retrieved 2021-05-07.
  20. ↑ Krook, Mona Lena; True, Jacqui (2012-03-01). "Rethinking the life cycles of international norms: The United Nations and the global promotion of gender equality". European Journal of International Relations (in Turanci). 18 (1): 103–127. doi:10.1177/1354066110380963. ISSN 1354-0661. S2CID 145545535.
  21. ↑ Bicchieri, Cristina; Dimant, Eugen; Gächter, Simon; Nosenzo, Daniele (2022). "Social proximity and the erosion of norm compliance". Games and Economic Behavior (in Turanci). 132: 59–72. doi:10.1016/j.geb.2021.11.012. ISSN 0899-8256. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Feldman, D.C. (1984). "The development and enforcement of group norms". Academy of Management Review. 9 (1): 47–55. doi:10.2307/258231. JSTOR 258231. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "feldman" defined multiple times with different content
  23. ↑ Bettenhausen, K.; Murnighan, J.K. (1985). "The emergence of norms in competitive decision-making groups". Administrative Science Quarterly. 30 (3): 350–372. doi:10.2307/2392667. JSTOR 2392667. S2CID 52525302.
  24. ↑ Appelbaum, R. P., Carr, D., Duneir, M., & Giddens, A. (2009). "Conformity, Deviance, and Crime." Introduction to Sociology, New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., p. 173.
  25. ↑ (Thomas X. ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  26. ↑ Drobak, John N. "1. The Role of Social Variables." Norms and the Law. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. N. pag. Print.
  27. ↑ Hollander, E.P. (1958). "Conformity, status, and idiosyncrasy credit". Psychological Review. 65 (2): 117–127. doi:10.1037/h0042501. PMID 13542706.
  28. ↑ Greenspan, Patricia S. "Chapter 4: Moral Residues." Practical Guilt: Moral Dilemmas, Emotions, and Social Norms. N.p.: Oxford UP, 1995. N. pag. Print.
  29. ↑ Greenspan, Patricia S. "Chapter 6: Basing Ethics on Emotion." Practical Guilt: Moral Dilemmas, Emotions, and Social Norms
  30. ↑ Garfield, Zachary H.; Ringen, Erik J.; Buckner, William; Medupe, Dithapelo; Wrangham, Richard W.; Glowacki, Luke (2023). "Norm violations and punishments across human societies". Evolutionary Human Sciences (in Turanci). 5: e11. doi:10.1017/ehs.2023.7. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10426015 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 37587937 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 258144948 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  31. ↑ Huang, Peter H.; Wu, Ho-Mou (October 1994). "More Order Without More Law: A Theory of Social Norms and Organizational Cultures". The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization. 10 (2): 390–406. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jleo.a036856. SSRN 5412.
  32. ↑ Aarts, H.; Dijksterhuis, A. (2003). "The silence of the library: Environment, situational norm, and social behavior" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 84 (1): 18–28. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.18. PMID 12518968. S2CID 18213113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-07-09.
  33. ↑ Collins, S. E.; Carey, K. B.; Sliwinski, M. J. (2002). "Mailed personalized normative feedback as a brief intervention for at-risk college drinkers". Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 63 (5): 559–567. doi:10.15288/jsa.2002.63.559. PMID 12380852.
  34. ↑ Gerber, A. S.; Rogers, T. (2009). "Descriptive social norms and motivation to vote: everybody's voting and so should you". The Journal of Politics. 71 (1): 178–191. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.691.37. doi:10.1017/s0022381608090117. S2CID 10783035.
  35. ↑ Brandon, Alec; List, John A.; Metcalfe, Robert D.; Price, Michael K.; Rundhammer, Florian (19 March 2019). "Testing for crowd out in social nudges: Evidence from a natural field experiment in the market for electricity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (12): 5293–5298. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.5293B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1802874115. PMC 6431171. PMID 30104369.
  36. ↑ Jackson, J. (1965). "Structural characteristics of norms". In I.D. Steiner & M. Fishbein (Eds.), Current studies in social psychology (pp. 301-309).
  37. ↑ Doering, Laura; Ody-Brasier, Amandine (2021). "Time and Punishment: How Individuals Respond to Being Sanctioned in Voluntary Associations". American Journal of Sociology. 127 (2): 441–491. doi:10.1086/717102. ISSN 0002-9602. S2CID 246017181 Check |s2cid= value (help). Archived from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2022-01-18.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Marshall, G. Oxford Dictionary of Sociology
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :06
  40. ↑ See The International Handbook of Sociology, ed. by Stella R. Quah and Arnaud Sales, Sage 2000, p. 62.
  41. ↑ Dobbert, Duane L., and Thomas X. Mackey. "Chapter 9: B.F. Skinner." Deviance: Theories on Behaviors That Defy Social Norms. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Print.
  42. ↑ Baker-Sperry, Lori; Grauerholz, Liz (October 2003). "The Pervasiveness and Persistence of the Feminine Beauty Ideal in Children's Fairy Tales". Gender and Society. 17 (5): 711–726. doi:10.1177/0891243203255605. JSTOR 3594706. S2CID 54711044. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
  43. ↑ Cialdini, R.B.; Reno, R.R.; Kallgren, C.A. (1990). "A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 58 (6): 1015–1026. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015. S2CID 7867498.
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