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Gudun yara

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Gudun yara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na human migration (en) Fassara

Shige da fice na yara, ko "yara a cikin ƙaura ko motsi" (wani lokacin "yara a kan motsi" ) motsi ne na mutane masu shekaru 3-18 a cikin ko a fadin iyakokin siyasa, tare da ko ba tare da iyayensu ba mai kula da doka ba, zuwa wata ƙasa ko yanki. Suna iya tafiya tare da ko ba tare da Takardun tafiye-tafiye na doka ba. Za su iya isa ƙasar da aka nufa a matsayin 'yan gudun hijira, Masu neman mafaka, ko baƙi na tattalin arziki.

Dalilan ƙaura

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Dalilin da yara ke yi ƙaura ya bambanta kamar mutanen da ke ƙaura. Sun hada da dalilai na tattalin arziki, burin ilimi, dalilan da suka shafi jinsi ko al'ada, dalilai na mutum da kuma gaggawa, bala'o'i na halitta, tsanantawa da rikice-rikicen jin kai. Wasu yara suna barin neman mafi kyawun dama yayin da wasu ke tserewa daga tashin hankali, cin zarafi, cin zarafin ko rikici. Dalilai da yawa sau da yawa sun dace. Lokacin da iyaye suka yi ƙaura ko suka rabu, yara na iya ƙaura zuwa wani wuri ko ƙasa tare da ɗaya ko duka iyaye, ko kuma iyayensu na iya barin su a baya kuma ƙaura ta kai tsaye ta shafa su.

Hakkin yara a cikin ƙaura da motsi

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Hakkin jin daɗi

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Hakkin jin shi ka'idar haƙƙin yara ce kamar yadda Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan 'Yancin Yara ta bayyana. Dangane da Mataki na 12 na yarjejeniyar, yara suna da damar bayyana ra'ayoyinsu a duk batutuwan da suka shafi su, kuma dole ne a ba da ra'ayoyin su daidai da shekarun da balaga na yaro. Wannan haƙƙin ya shafi yadda yara ke shiga cikin al'amuran zamantakewa da siyasa da kuma shari'a da gudanarwa. A matsayin ka'ida ta gaba ɗaya, haƙƙin yaro na jin yana nuna manufar 'ofishin' na yara, kallon yara ba kawai a matsayin mutane masu rauni da ke buƙatar kariya ta musamman ba, har ma a matsayin masu yanke shawara, masu haƙƙin haƙƙin haƙƙi da membobin al'umma masu aiki.

Yara da yawa ba sa son raba bayanai tare da hukumomi a ƙasar da suke nufi saboda tsoron cewa bayyana bayanai bazai zama abin sha'awa ba kuma cewa ba da labarin su na iya haifar da dawowa zuwa ƙasarsu ta asali. Wataƙila mutane na uku sun umarci yara su bayyana wasu sassan labarinsu kawai, akwai yiwuwar barazana da tsoron ramuwar gayya, kuma yaron bazai amince da 'yan sanda ba kuma hukumomin yankin za su iya kare su. Tsarin karɓar baƙi wanda ke nuna girmamawa da kuma tabbatar da mutuncin yaro na iya cimma don inganta amincewa da yaro ga jami'ai da masu sana'a waɗanda ta sadu da su. Masu fassara na iya rinjayar tsarin tattara bayanai a cikin hanyoyin mafaka da bincike na laifi yayin da suke shafar yadda ake fahimtar labarin yaron da kuma fahimta. Fassarar da ba daidai ba na iya lalata bayanin yaron, wanda ke haifar da yanke shawara bisa ga bayanan da ba daidai bane. Wannan yana da alaƙa da ba kawai da abubuwan da aka fassara ba har ma da salon da zaɓin da yaron ya yi da kuma yadda masu fassara ke isar da saƙon.[1]

Binciken da ya fi dacewa da ƙuduri

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An bayyana mafi kyawun sha'awa a Mataki na 3 na Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan 'Yancin Yara, wanda ya ce "a duk ayyukan da suka shafi yara, ko da aka gudanar da su ta hanyar cibiyoyin jin dadin jama'a ko masu zaman kansu, kotuna, hukumomin gudanarwa ko hukumomin majalisa, mafi kyawun sha-awar yaro zai zama la'akari na farko". Binciken mafi kyawun bukatun yaro yana nufin kimantawa da daidaitawa "duk abubuwan da ake buƙata don yanke shawara a cikin takamaiman yanayi ga takamaiman yaro ko ƙungiyar yara".[2] Hakkin yaro na samun ita ko mafi kyawun abubuwan da yake so a matsayin la'akari na farko yana nufin cewa abubuwan da ke cikin yaron suna da fifiko kuma ba kawai ɗaya daga cikin la'akari da yawa ba. Binciken takamaiman ne ga yaro a matsayin mutum, yana mai da mahimmanci don kafa dangantaka ta amincewa da yaro da kuma sadarwa yadda ya kamata a cikin yaren da yarinyar ko yaro ya fahimta. Binciken ya dace ya haɗa da ƙungiyar ƙwararrun ƙwararrun masu sana'a.[3][4]


A cikin shari'o'in kasa da kasa, cikakken tsarin kimantawa da ƙuduri na mafi kyawun sha'awa yana la'akari da waɗannan:

  • Kafa asalin yaron da kuma asalin duk wani mutum da ke tare da shi da kuma ingancin dangantakarsu
  • Binciken shari'a, gami da abubuwan da suka biyo baya:
    • Jin yaron
    • Binciken halin da yaron yake ciki, asali da bukatun
    • Yanayin zamantakewa da kimantawa na iyali
    • Tattara shaidu ciki har da jarrabawar shari'a da hira da yaro
    • Haɗari da ƙididdigar tsaro
    • Taswirar tushen tallafi, ƙwarewa, damar da albarkatu don karfafawa
  • Ci gaba da aikin rayuwa
  • Cikakken tasirin yara na duk wani yanke shawara mai yuwuwa
  • Gano mafita mai dorewa
  • Ci gaba da kimantawa yayin aiwatar da mafita mai ɗorewa tare da bin diddigin da ya dace, bita da saka idanu, da gyare-gyare ga shirye-shiryen mafita mai tsawo, idan kuma kamar yadda ake buƙata, bisa ga mafi kyawun bukatun yaro

A cikin ƙasar Ghana, akwai batun da aka mayar da hankali kan kwatankwacin ilimi tsakanin ɗaliban ƙaura da waɗanda ba ƙaura ba. An nuna cewa ɗaliban da ba 'yan gudun hijira ba sun sami ƙarin kulawa, sabili da haka, sun sami maki fiye da ɗaliban ƙaura. Ana buƙatar nuna ƙarin hankali ga baƙi kamar yadda aka nuna wa sauran ɗalibai. [5]

Hakkin rashin nuna bambanci: Matsayi, samun dama da iko

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Yarjejeniyar kan 'Yancin Yara ta ba da kariya mai zurfi daga nuna bambanci da kuma hakkoki masu mahimmanci da ba za a iya ba da su ba ga dukkan' yan adam. Ya tsara cewa Jihohi Jam'iyyun za su mutunta kuma su tabbatar da haƙƙoƙin da aka tsara a cikin yarjejeniyar ga kowane yaro a cikin ikonsu ba tare da nuna bambanci na kowane nau'i ba, ba tare da la'akari da launin fata ko iyayensa ko mai kula da doka ba, launi, jima'i, yare, addini, siyasa ko wani ra'ayi, ƙasa, kabilanci ko asalin zamantakewa, dukiya, nakasa, haihuwa ko wani matsayi.[6]

Hakkin da aka bayar a karkashin Yarjejeniyar ya shafi yara wadanda ba na kasa ba, ba tare da la'akari da matsayin shige da fice ba ko matsayin iyayen su. Wannan ya hada da yara masu ziyara, 'yan gudun hijira, 'ya'yan ma'aikatan ƙaura da yara marasa takardun shaida. Hakkin rashin nuna bambanci yana ba da damar kowane yaro don taimako da tallafi nan take yayin da ake tantance halin da yaron ke ciki da ita ko kuma abubuwan da ya fi so. Rashin nuna bambanci ba ya nuna cewa an ba wa yaro izinin zama na atomatik, amma ana yanke shawara bisa ga ƙudurin mafi kyawun sha'awa, ko za a dawowa da yaro ko kuma ƙasar da aka nufa ta ɗauki iko akan yaron.[7][8]

Yayin da suke kimanta yanayin yaron da halin da ake ciki, hukumomin jihar suna da alhakin bayyana wane jiha ke da iko a kan yaro kuma, idan an buƙata kuma ya dace, canja wuri ko kafa iko a ƙasar da aka nufa. Lokacin da iko a kan yaro wanda ba na kasa ba ya bayyana, yaron yana cikin haɗarin kasancewa a cikin yanayin rashin tabbas kuma yana iya amfana ne kawai daga ayyukan wucin gadi da matakan kariya, har sai matsayin yaron ya cika ko kuma yaron ya koma ƙasar da ke da iko. Abubuwan da suka shafi iko sun hada da:

  • Za a iya samun shari'ar da ke jiran kotu inda yaron yake ciki.
  • Ayyukan zamantakewa a wata ƙasa na iya sa ido kan yaron da ita ko iyalinsa.
  • Yanayin yaron na iya kasancewa a karkashin binciken tilasta bin doka a wata ƙasa, gami da inda ake zargin fataucin yara.
  • Yaron na iya ba da aikace-aikacen mafaka a wata ƙasa;
  • Ana iya yin rajistar yaron a matsayin 'yaro da ya ɓace' a ƙasashen waje.[9]

Ci gaba

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Hakkin yaro ga rayuwa, rayuwa da ci gaba ana ba da shi a ƙarƙashin Mataki na 6 na Yarjejeniyar kan 'Yancin Yara. Wadannan hakkoki an amince da su ta hanyar

Jihohi kuma suna da alaƙa da rayuwa, tsaro da kiwon lafiya a matsayin wajibi ga ci gaban jiki da kuma ci gaban tunani, ruhaniya, ɗabi'a, ilimi, fahimta, motsin rai da zamantakewar al'adu na yaro. Wannan yana cikin ƙoƙari don tabbatar da matsakaicin rayuwa, girma da damar yaron.[10][11][12]

Ingancin kulawa yana da tasiri kai tsaye akan ci gaban yaro. Inganta haƙƙin ci gaban yaro da buƙatu yana nufin ba ta damar girma a cikin iyalinta na asali ko a cikin madadin kulawa na iyali ko iyali, duk inda wannan yake don amfanin yaro. Shirye-shiryen kulawa da samun damar samun ingancin sabis don kiwon lafiya da ilimi suna da mahimmanci yayin tantance bukatun ci gaban yaro.[11][12]

Abubuwan da ke biyowa sun dace yayin kimanta bukatun ci gaban yaro (tare da ambaton abubuwan da suka dace a ƙarƙashin Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan 'Yancin Yara):

  • Hakkin kiyaye ta ko asalinsa, gami da kasa, suna da alakar iyali (Mataki na 8);
  • Ci gaba a cikin kula da yaro da girma, tare da la'akari da kabilanci, addini, al'adu da asalin harshe na yaro (Mataki na 20);
  • Hakkin yaro ya ji daɗin mafi girman matakin kiwon lafiya (Mataki na 24);
  • Hakkin kowane yaro ga yanayin rayuwa wanda ya dace da ci gaban jiki, tunani, ruhaniya, ɗabi'a da zamantakewa na yaro (Mataki na 27);
  • Samun dama ga ilimi (Mataki na 28 da 29);
  • Hakkin yaro na hutawa da hutawa, don shiga cikin wasanni da ayyukan nishaɗi da suka dace da ita ko shekarunsa (Mataki na 31).

Samun damar yin adalci

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Yara da adalci a cikin shari'o'in kasa da kasa

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Yara a kan tafiya wani lokacin suna shafar ko suna cikin rikici da doka, gami da rikice-rikicen iyali na kan iyaka da al'amuran alhakin iyaye da hulɗa, a matsayin masu neman mafaka ko wadanda ke fama da aikata laifuka kuma, a wasu lokuta, a matsayin yara da ke rikici da dokar game da batutuwan shige da fice ko kuma batutuwan da ba bisa ka'ida ba. Wasu yara da ke rikici da doka a zahiri wadanda ke fama da aikata laifuka. Dokar kasa da kasa da Turai suna ba da cikakkun ka'idoji da ke tsara magani, haƙƙoƙi da haƙƙin yara da ke hulɗa da shari'a, a matsayin waɗanda aka azabtar, waɗanda ake tuhuma ko masu aikata laifuka.

Yara da ke fama da aikata laifuka

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Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan 'Yancin Yara ta haramta cin zarafin yara a kowane nau'i kuma a kowane mahallin (Mataki na 19, 32-36). Duk wani yaro da ya fuskanci tashin hankali, cin zarafi ko cin zarafi za a iya la'akari da shi a matsayin wanda aka aikata laifuka kuma yana jin daɗin haƙƙoƙi da haƙƙoƙin da ke da alaƙa, gami da samun taimako, kariya da tallafi, sabis don farfadowa da farfadowar jiki, samun damar yin adalci, tare da kariya ta dace a duk wani shari'a ko tsarin gudanarwa. Ya kamata a gano yara da ke cikin haɗarin cin zarafi a matsayin masu haɗari kuma a tura su taimako da tallafi don hana cin zarafinsu ko wani lahani.

Yara da aka yi amfani da su a cikin ayyukan da ba bisa ka'ida ba da kuma aikata laifuka

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Wani muhimmin kariya ga yara da ke fama da aikata laifuka shine 'ma'anar rashin hukunci'. Yana nufin cewa yara da ke fama da laifuka na aikata laifuka, gami da fataucin mutane, za a kare su daga takunkumi ko gurfanar da su saboda ayyukan da suka aikata dangane da halin da suke ciki a matsayin wadanda aka azabtar. Matakin da ba na azabtarwa yana kare yara waɗanda aka yi amfani da su a cikin ayyukan da ba bisa ka'ida ba ko aikata laifuka da kuma yara waɗanda aka tilasta musu shiga ƙasa ba tare da takardun tafiye-tafiye masu inganci ba.[13]

Jagororin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Adalci a cikin Al'amuran da suka shafi Yara da Shaidu na Laifi sun jaddada cewa "yara da suka sha wahala da shaidu na iya fuskantar ƙarin wahala idan aka kalli su a matsayin masu laifi lokacin da a zahiri wadanda aka azabtar da su kuma shaidu". Jagororin sun ce ya kamata a kare wadanda aka azabta daga tuhumar ba tare da la'akari da kowane nau'in 'yanci'akari da sa hannu a cikin laifi ba kuma ba tare da kula da shekarun yaron ba dangane da dokokin ƙasa da shekarun da ke bayyana shekarun aikata laifi. Ya kamata a yi la'akari da yaro wanda aka azabtar kuma a bi da shi kamar haka "... ba tare da la'akari le rawar da suka taka a cikin laifin ko a cikin gurfanar da wanda ake zargi da laifin ko kungiyoyin masu laifi ba. "[14]

Ofishin Babban Kwamishinan 'Yancin Dan Adam (OHCHR) Ka'idoji da Jagororin da aka ba da shawarar kan' yancin dan adam da Cinikin Dan Adam da Jagoronin UNICEF kan Kare Yara Wadanda ke fama da Cinikin sun sake jaddada haƙƙin rashin aikata laifuka musamman dangane da halin da ake ciki na wadanda ke fama da fataucin mutane wadanda za a kare su daga alhakin aikata laifukan "duk wani laifi wanda ya kasance sakamakon kai tsaye daga fataucin". Wannan tanadin ya kara karfafawa ta hanyar sashi na rashin hukunci na Dokar Yaki da Cin Hanci da Kasuwancin Tarayyar Turai ta 2011 da Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Turai kan Ayyuka game da Cin Hancin Dan Adam, sabili da haka an sanya shi a kan Kasashe: "Kowace Jam'iyya za ta, bisa ga ka'idojin ka'idoji na tsarin shari'arta, samar da yiwuwar kada a sanya hukunci ga wadanda abin ya shafa saboda shiga cikin ayyukan da ba bisa ka'ida ba, har zuwa inda aka tilasta musu yin hakan. " (Mataki na 26).[15][16]

Lokacin da yaro wanda ba na kasa ba ya saba wa doka kuma babu wata alama cewa an yi amfani da yaron a cikin ayyukan da ba bisa ka'ida ba ko kuma an azabtar da shi, ka'idojin adalci na yara iri ɗaya sun shafi yara na kasa.[17][18][19]

Hakkin samun taimako na kwastomomi

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Yaran da ke waje da ƙasarsu suna da 'yancin samun taimako daga ofisoshin jakadanci da ofisoshin kwastomomi da ke wakiltar ƙasarsu. Ma'aikatan kwastam na iya taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen tallafawa da taimakawa yara a kasashen waje, kafa lambobin sadarwa na tallafi da turawa, da kuma tattara taimako. Ma'aikatan kwastam na iya tuntuɓar hukumomin tsakiya ko wuraren hulɗa na ƙasa don shawarwarin fasaha a lokuta da suka shafi yara. A karkashin Yarjejeniyar Vienna ta 1963 kan Dangantakar Kasuwanci ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, ayyukan kwastomomi sun haɗa da taimakawa da taimakawa 'yan ƙasa na jihar aikawa. Wannan na iya haɗawa da matakai don kare bukatun yara waɗanda ke cikin ƙasar aikawa a cikin iyakokin da dokoki da ka'idojin Jihar karɓa suka ɗora, musamman lokacin da ake buƙatar nada mai kula.[20] Dole ne hukumomin ƙasar da aka nufa su sanar da ofishin kwastam ba tare da bata lokaci ba lokacin da aka yi la'akari da nadin mai kula da yaro. Dokoki da ka'idojin Jihar karɓa game da nadin mai kula suna aiki kuma ba su da tasiri ta hanyar raba bayanai tare da ofisoshin kwastam masu dacewa.[21]

Shige da fice da motsi a cikin Tarayyar Turai

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Dukkanin mutane, gami da iyaye, iyalai tare da yara da Yara marasa raka'a, suna jin daɗin 'yancin motsi a cikin yankin Turai. A cikin yankin Turai na 'yancin motsi,' yan ƙasa na Tarayyar Turai da Kasashen EFTA Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway da Switzerland suna da damar shiga da zama a wasu Kasashen membobin Tarayyar Tarayyar na tsawon watanni uku ba tare da rajista ba kuma an ba su izinin zama lokacin da za su iya nuna samun kudin shiga. Hakkin yara a matsayin baƙi marasa haɗin kai a yankin Turai na 'yancin motsi ba a bayyana su a bayyane ba kuma nauyin ma'aikata masu alaƙa ba su da tabbas. Hanyar da gwamnatocin ƙasa ke fassara da kuma tsara ka'idojin 'yancin motsi ga yara marasa matuka a ƙarƙashin shekaru 18 sun bambanta tsakanin ƙasashe.[22]

Gidan mafaka

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Yarjejeniyar 'yan gudun hijira ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da Yarjejeniyarta sun tsara haƙƙin mutane don neman kariya ta duniya. Yara suna jin daɗin kariya ta musamman kuma suna da 'yancin yin nazarin aikace-aikacen mafaka ɗai-ɗai. Dole ne a yi la'akari da takamaiman dalilan tsanantawa na yara ba tare da la'akari ba ko yaron ya yi amfani da shi shi kadai ko tare da iyaye ko mai kulawa. Kasashen membobin Tarayyar Turai sun sake tsara waɗannan ƙa'idodin don yanayin EU kuma sun karɓi jerin Dokokin da ke tsara cancanta da yanayin karɓar masu neman mafaka a cikin EU da kuma hanyoyin mafaka da batutuwan dawowa.

Rashin ƙarfi

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Yara a kan motsi ana kiransu 'masu rauni' kodayake ba a bayyana ma'anar kalmar ba ko bayyana ta don yanayin kariya ta yara. Sau da yawa ana fahimtar rauni a matsayin rashi kuma ana daidaita shi da rauni da buƙatar kariya. Daga tsarin da ya danganci haƙƙin yara, rauni yana nufin iyakantaccen damar da yaro ke da shi don yin amfani da ita ko haƙƙinsa kamar yadda aka ba shi a ƙarƙashin Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan 'Yancin Yara.[23][24] Ma'anar da ke akwai game da rauni waɗanda ake amfani da su a cikin yanayin rage talauci, kiwon lafiya da abinci mai gina jiki na iya zama da amfani a cikin yanayin kariya ga yara.Wannan rauni ya kara muni ta hanyar kariya ta doka. Matasa a kan tafiyar sun fi rauni fiye da manya baƙi kuma suna fuskantar rushewa, raguwa, rashin tattalin arziki da albarkatun kayan aiki, rashin samun dama ga ayyuka na asali, da kuma karuwar haɗarin cin zarafi, tashin hankali da cin zarafi.

Gudun hijira mai aminci

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Wasu yara suna ƙaura da kariya da kulawa kuma wasu suna samun nasara don cimma burin da ya motsa tafiyarsu. Lokacin da ƙaura ta kasance lafiya kuma tana da nasara, yara suna da damar haɓaka jin daɗinsu, don samun damar sabis mafi inganci da kuma amfana daga ingantaccen ilimi. Hanyoyin ƙaura masu aminci na iya tallafawa yara sosai a cikin canjin su zuwa girma da rayuwa mai zaman kanta. Za su inganta damar rayuwa, gami da sauyawa zuwa manya da kasuwar aiki, tare da yanayin aiki mafi kyau, albashi mafi girma da kuma karuwar damar ba da gudummawa ga al'ummominsu da al'ummomi, a cikin ƙasashe na asali da makoma. Yara da matasa na iya tallafa wa iyalansu ta hanyar aikawa da tallafawa ci gaban al'ummomin da suka fito.[25][26][27][28]

Hadarin yara a cikin ƙaura

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Ga yara da suka yi ƙaura don tserewa daga yanayin rayuwa mai wahala, tashin hankali ko rikici, ƙaura na iya zama damar rage haɗari. Sauran suna fuskantar haɗari mai tsanani yayin ƙaura ko a wurin da aka nufa. Wasu kungiyoyin yara suna da saukin kamuwa da cin zarafi da cin zarafin, gami da fataucin mutane, saboda rashin ƙarfi na tsaro na zamantakewa. Hadarin da yaro ke fuskanta sau da yawa suna da alaƙa da juna kuma ana ɗaukar su a matsayin tarawa. Yaron da ya riga ya zauna a cikin mawuyacin hali, kamar talauci, cin zarafi ko barin makaranta, ana ɗaukarsa mafi rauni lokacin da ƙarin haɗari suka zo, kamar dangantakar cin zarafi o ƙaura mai haɗari.[23][24]

Yara masu ƙaura da yawa suna fuskantar lahani yayin tafiya da kuma inda suke. Yara suna fuskantar tashin hankali, cin zarafi da cin zarafi a hannun mutanen da suka haɗu da su a cikin zirga-zirga da kuma inda suke, gami da ma'aikata, masu jigilar kaya, masu safarar mutane da masu fataucin mutane. Za su iya fuskantar matakai masu mahimmanci na rashin kulawa ko cin zarafin jami'an gwamnati, gami da 'yan sanda, masu tsaron iyaka, jami'an shige da fice da ma'aikata a wuraren karɓar baƙi ko tsare-tsare. Wasu 'yan gudun hijira suna mutuwa a kan tafiya daga rashin ruwa, rashin abinci mai gina jiki, sufuri ko haɗarin sufuri ko nutsar da teku.[29]

Yanayin ƙaura mara aminci, ta hanyar yanayinsu, suna haifar da haɗari ga yara. Baya ga fuskantar ayyukan tashin hankali, yara suna cikin haɗarin yin rikici da doka idan sun yi tafiya ba tare da takardun da ake buƙata ba, idan sun shiga cikin ayyukan da ba bisa ka'ida ba ko aikata laifuka don samun rayuwa, ko kuma idan wasu sun rinjayi su ko tilasta su yin hakan. A cikin yanayi na motsi na al'ada ko ƙaura mai zagaye, irin waɗannan yanayi na iya rinjayar jin daɗi, aminci da ci gaba sosai na yaro.[23][24]

Amfani da shi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yara a kan tafiya suna cikin haɗarin nau'o'i daban-daban na cin zarafi. Sun haɗa da cin zarafin jima'i a cikin karuwanci da batsa, masu aikata laifukan jima'i masu tafiya ta hanyar kyamarorin yanar gizo, hotunan cin zarafin yara da abubuwan da ba bisa ka'ida ba a intanet. Amfani yana faruwa ne a cikin aikin yara da aikin gida, a matsayin au-pairs, a cikin masana'antu, gine-gine, shimfida asphalt, gidajen cin abinci da masana'antun tsaftacewa, noma da karɓar 'ya'yan itace da kuma bara. Har ila yau, akwai shari'o'in kasa da kasa na auren yara da aka tilasta. Iyalai, ƙananan kungiyoyi ko manyan hanyoyin aikata laifuka na iya shirya cin zarafin yara. Ana amfani da yara a cikin ayyukan da ba bisa ka'ida ba da kuma aikata laifuka, gami da samar da miyagun ƙwayoyi da fataucin miyagun ƙ ƙwayoyi, satar aljihu ko sata.[30][31] Yara da aka yi wa fataucin mutane suna amfani da su sosai ta hanyar masu fataucin kaya don dalilai kamar bara, cin hanci da rashawa, cin hancin shaida, cin hance da rashawa.[32]

Cinikin mutane

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An bayyana fataucin yara a cikin Yarjejeniyar Cinikin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta 2000 a matsayin daukar ma'aikata, sufuri, canja wuri, adanawa ko karɓar yaro don manufar cin zarafi. Duk da yake wannan ma'anar ta shafi shari'o'in kasa da kasa da / ko shari'o-tafiye da suka shafi kungiyoyin masu aikata laifuka, ana gane fataucin yara a waje da waɗannan sigogi.[33] Kungiyar Kwadago ta Duniya ta fadada ma'anar don haɗawa da motsi da cin zarafi a matsayin mahimman fannoni na fataucin yara.[33]

Wadanda ke fama da fataucin kasa da kasa na iya ƙetare iyakoki tare da ko ba tare da takardun tafiye-tafiye na doka ba kuma tare da ko kuma ba tare da taimakon masu safarar mutane ba. Sau da yawa ana daukar mutane cikin fataucin mutane ne kawai bayan sun haye iyakar kasa da kasa. A lokuta da yawa, fataucin mutane yana faruwa a cikin ƙasashe kuma babu ƙetare iyaka da ke ciki. Yarjejeniyar Cinikin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta 2000 ta ɗauki hanyoyin fataucin mutane da yardar yaro ga kowane aikin fataucin ba shi da mahimmanci wajen gano wanda aka yi fataucin. Hanyoyin cin zarafin da zasu iya zama fataucin mutane sun hada da, "aƙalla, cin zarafin karuwanci na wasu ko wasu nau'ikan cin zarafin jima'i, tilasta aiki ko ayyuka, bautar ko ayyukan da suka yi kama da bautar, bautar da kuma cire gabobin".[34]

Ana iya gurfanar da fataucin yara lokacin da zai yiwu a tabbatar da niyyar cin zarafin yaron, koda kuwa ba a riga an yi amfani da shi ba. Fassara daban-daban wani lokacin suna da wahala a rarrabe fataucin yara daga wasu nau'ikan cin zarafi.

Ma'anar fataucin yara a Turai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Turai kan Ayyuka game da Cin Hanci da Cin Hanyoyi (2005) ta karɓi ma'anar ƙasa da ƙasa, iri ɗaya a cikin kalmomi, tana jaddada duk da haka cewa za a kare wadanda abin ya shafa a lokuta inda fataucin ke faruwa a cikin ƙasashe kuma ba tare da shigar manyan kungiyoyin masu aikata laifuka ba.[35]

Umurnin Yammacin Cin Hanci da Kasuwanci na Tarayyar Turai (2011) ya fadada ra'ayin cin zarafi a cikin manufar fataucin mutane. A bayyane ya haɗa da manufar cin zarafi a cikin ayyukan aikata laifuka a matsayin wani ɓangare na ma'anar fataucin mutane. Mataki na 2.3 ya bayyana cewa "'amfani da ayyukan aikata laifuka' ya kamata a fahimta a matsayin cin zarafin mutum don yin, a tsakanin sauran, satar aljihu, ɗaga shago, fataucin miyagun ƙwayoyi da sauran irin waɗannan ayyukan waɗanda ke ƙarƙashin hukunci kuma suna nuna riba ta kuɗi". Umurnin ya bayyana cewa "amfani da bara, gami da amfani da mutum mai dogaro da fataucin mutane don bara, ya fada cikin ma'anar fataucin a cikin mutane ne kawai lokacin da duk abubuwan tilasta aiki ko ayyuka suka faru".[36]

Fitar da kayayyaki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya game da safarar baƙi ta ƙasa, teku da iska ta bayyana safarar mutane a matsayin "sakewa, don samun, kai tsaye ko a kaikaice, fa'idar kuɗi ko wasu kayan aiki na shigar mutum ba bisa ka'ida ba a cikin Jam'iyyar Jiha wanda mutumin ba ɗan ƙasa ba ne ko mazaunin dindindin". Mai shigo da kaya yana sauƙaƙa ƙetare iyaka na wasu ba tare da takardun tafiye-tafiye da ake buƙata ba kuma don samun kuɗi ko wasu riba. Da zarar mai shigo da kaya ya sauƙaƙa ƙetare iyaka ko tabbatar da isowar baƙi a wurin da aka amince da shi, hulɗa tsakanin mai shigo da mutane da baƙi da aka shigo da su yawanci ya ƙare. Fitar da mutane a fadin iyakokin kasa da kasa na iya zama wani ɓangare na aikin fataucin mutane lokacin da aka yi shi don manufar cin zarafin mutane a ƙasar da aka nufa.[37][38] Kodayake ana ɗaukar smuggling laifi ne ga jihar, mutanen da ke amfani da ayyukan smugglers na iya shan wahala ta hanyar tashin hankali yayin da ake smuggling ko kuma suna iya mutuwa saboda yanayin sufuri mara kyau.

Sayar da yara

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Sayar da yara yana nufin duk wani aiki ko ma'amala inda kowane mutum ko rukuni na mutane ke tura yaro zuwa wani don biyan kuɗi ko wani la'akari. Duk da yake fataucin mutane na iya haɗawa da sayarwa da siyar da mutane, siyar da yara na iya haifar da cin zarafi amma ba lallai ba ne. Ana sayar da yara a wasu lokuta a cikin tallafi ba bisa ka'ida ba, alal misali. Ana kuma sayar da yara don cin zarafin jima'i ko aiki. A cikin waɗannan lokuta, ana iya samun haɗuwa tsakanin fataucin mutane da siyarwa a matsayin ayyukan laifi guda biyu a cikin shari'a ɗaya.[39]

Shige da fice da ci gaba mai ɗorewa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Haɗin tsakanin ƙaura da ci gaba an san shi sosai. Shige da fice yana da alaƙa kai tsaye da Agenda na 2030 don Ci Gaban Ci gaba. Dangane da yanayin yawan jama'a na yanzu, yawan jama'ar kasashe masu arziki za su ci gaba da tsufa ba tare da daidaituwa ba yayin da ƙaramin ƙarni ke da yawa a kasashe masu karamin kuɗi, suna haifar da damuwa a kasuwar ma'aikata, tsaro na zamantakewa, ilimi da abinci mai gina jiki.[40]

Gudun hijira na iya rage waɗannan rashin daidaituwa a bangarorin biyu. Yana da damar kara yawan ma'aikata da karfafa matasa a cikin lambobi inda ake bukata. Wannan zai haifar da karuwar gudummawa ga tsarin jin dadin jama'a a cikin ƙasashe masu samun kudin shiga da kuma rage damuwa a kan tsarin jin dadin zamantakewa a ƙasashen asali tare da matsanancin talauci da rashin aikin yi. Manufofin ƙaura da motsi ya kamata su sauƙaƙa musayar ilimi, iyawa da albarkatun ɗan adam yayin hana motsi ɗaya da ɓarkewar kwakwalwa. Idan aka gani daga wannan ra'ayi, ƙaura tana da fa'idodi masu yuwuwa don rage talauci da haɓaka ci gaban duniya mai ɗorewa.[41][42] Haɗin tsakanin ƙaura da ci gaba suna da tasiri ga manufofi da aiki a cikin waɗannan yankuna kuma ana buƙatar daidaita matakan da suka dace a ƙasashe masu zuwa da asali.

Daga hangen nesa na haƙƙin ɗan adam da ci gaba, ƙasashen asali da makoma suna da alhakin sarrafa ƙaura. Kyakkyawan ci gaba da rage haɗarin daga ƙaura na iya haɗawa da haɓaka babban birnin ɗan adam na baƙi da saka hannun jari a cikin haɗin gwiwar kula da ƙaura tsakanin ƙasashe na asali da makoma a cikin zamantakewa, tattalin arziki da siyasa.[42]

Tarihin ƙaurawar yara ta ƙasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ostiraliya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A ƙarshen ƙarni na 19 da farkon ƙarni na 20, an cire yara da yawa na Aboriginal Australiya daga iyalansu kuma an sanya su a cibiyoyi da gidaje masu kula, a cikin abin da aka sani da Stolen Generations .

Yara 130,000 sun yi ƙaura zuwa Ostiraliya a ƙarƙashin taimakon ƙaura na yara daga Burtaniya kadai, tare da ƙaramin adadi daga Malta. An karɓi yara masu ƙaura ko kuma an haife su a gidajen yara, cibiyoyi, gidajen marayu ko kulawa. Yawancin waɗannan yara an yi amfani da su a cikin aikin bayi ta majami'u a Ostiraliya. Yawancin waɗannan yara sun fuskanci sakaci da cin zarafi yayin da suke cikin kulawar ma'aikata.

A watan Nuwamba na shekara ta 2009 Firayim Ministan Australia, Kevin Rudd ya nemi gafara ga "Mutanen Australia da aka rasa" da yara masu ƙaura a madadin kasar.[43][44] "Mutanen da aka rasa" kalma ce da Majalisar Dattijan Australiya ta yi amfani da ita don bayyana yara da aka girma a gidajen marayu, gidajen yara, cibiyoyi ko kulawa a Ostiraliya. Yara masu ƙaura takamaiman rukuni ne na "Mutanen da suka ɓace".[45]

Bulgaria

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Shige da fice na yara wani abu ne da ke da alaƙa da ƙaurawar masu kula da kasuwar Bulgarian zuwa Austria-Hungary a rabi na biyu na karni na 19 da farkon karni na 20, saboda amfani da aikin yara (yawanci yara maza) a cikin lambu na kasuwa. Ayyukan yara sun kawo manyan masu aikin lambu mafi girma tun lokacin da ba a biya yara ba amma sun yi aiki a matsayin masu koyo don kiyaye su kawai. Ƙananan yara sun taimaka a cikin lambuna kuma sun koyi ƙwarewar lambu, yayin da waɗanda suka riga sun kasance masu ƙarfi a jiki suka yi ayyukan lambu na musamman. Za'a iya rarrabe alamu daban-daban na ƙaurawar yara bisa ga tarihin rayuwa da labarun rayuwar kansu na masu lambu na kasuwa: yara da suka yi ƙaura tare da iyayensu masu lambu a kasuwa a matsayin iyali ko waɗanda suka yi lambu na kasuwar da aka haifa a ƙasashen waje; yara da suka ƙaura tare na ɗaya daga cikin iyaye (yawanci mahaifin lambu na kasuwanci) ko kuma tare da dangi na mahaifinsa mai lambu don "koyi aiki"; yara waɗanda suka yi ƙauka tare da iyayensa masu tasowa suna rayuwa a kasuwa a kan iyalan su, su, su suna rayuwa ta hanyar kuɗi, su bar iyalin su zama a ƙasarsu suna rayuwa a ƙasa da yara masu ƙanƙanta suna rayuwa"[46]

Kanada

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  Tsarin makarantar zama na Indiyawan Kanada, wanda aka kafa a karni na 19, an yi niyya ne don tilasta daidaitawa da Mutanen Aboriginal a Kanada cikin al'ummar Turai-Kanada.[47] An rufe makarantar zama ta ƙarshe a shekara ta 1996. A ranar 11 ga Yuni, 2008, Firayim Minista Stephen Harper ya nemi gafara, a madadin majalisar ministocin da ke zaune, a gaban masu sauraro na wakilan Aboriginal, kuma a cikin jawabin da aka watsa a cikin kasa a kan CBC, don manufofin gwamnatocin da suka gabata na daidaitawa.[48]A shekara ta 2009, Paparoma Benedict na XVI ya nuna baƙin cikinsa game da "tsananin da ya haifar da mummunar hali na wasu membobin Cocin" kuma ya ba da "haushi da hadin kai na addu'a".

Malta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yara 310 sun yi hijira daga Malta zuwa Ostiraliya tsakanin 1950 da 1965 a karkashin 'Yar Shige da Fice zuwa Ostiraaliya Shirin' biyo bayan yarjejeniya tsakanin kwamitin Shige da fice na Katolika na Australiya da Ministan Shige da Shige da Fitowa da Ma'aikata a ranar 9 ga Disamba 1949. [49] Yawancin yaran Maltese da aka aika zuwa Ostiraliya a ƙarƙashin wannan makirci sun fito ne daga gidajen marayu na gwamnati ko gidajen yara na Ikilisiya kuma an ce duk sun tafi tare da yardar iyayensu. Gwamnatin Australiya ta ba da gudummawa don maraba da yara maza na Maltese, masu shekaru tsakanin takwas zuwa 11, da 'yan mata masu shekaru tsakanin biyar zuwa 10 a cikin cibiyoyin Katolika kuma sun yi alkawarin ba su aiki karkashin kulawar hukumomin Katolika.[49] Ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan yara ya zama firist kuma wasu da yawa sun fara aiki duk da cewa da yawa sun girma da rauni da sanin cewa iyayensu sun yarda da barin gida.[49] An haɗa 'yan gudun hijirar Maltese a cikin neman gafara na Firayim Minista na Australiya na 2009 ga waɗanda suka sha wahala a hannun masu kula da su a cibiyoyi, marayu da kulawa.[49]

Falasdinu da aka tilasta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A lokacin yakin duniya na biyu, dubban kananan yara daga iyalan Yahudawa a Turai da ke zaune a Nazi an kai su cikin aminci a Mandatory Palestine (yanzu Isra'ila).

Ƙasar Ingila

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  Ayyukan aikawa da yara matalauta ko marayu zuwa yankunan mazauna Ingila, don taimakawa wajen rage karancin ma'aikata, ya fara ne a Ingila a cikin 1618, tare da tarawa da jigilar yara 100 zuwa mulkin mallaka na Virginia.[50] Kafin rabi na biyu na karni na ashirin, ana ganin shirin Home Children a matsayin hanyar motsa yara matalauta zuwa "rayuwa mafi kyau" a Ostiraliya, Kanada da sauran wurare, tare da samar da "farin kaya" mai kyau ga tsoffin yankuna. Ba a tuntubi yara da iyaye ba, kuma sau da yawa ana raba 'yan uwa.[51] A cikin jimlar an aika yara 130,000 daga Ƙasar Ingila zuwa Kanada, New Zealand, Afirka ta Kudu, Rhodesia (yanzu Zimbabwe), da Ostiraliya. Sau da yawa ana yin ƙarya ga yara game da mutuwar iyayensu kuma da yawa sun fuskanci cin zarafi a sababbin gidajensu.[43] A watan Fabrairun 2010 Firayim Ministan Burtaniya, Gordon Brown ya ba da gafara na hukuma don shirin sake zama na yara 'mai kunya' kuma ya ba da sanarwar asusun fam miliyan 6 da aka tsara don biyan iyalan da shirin "ba daidai ba" ya shafa. The Child Migrants Trust tun lokacin da ya kafa Asusun Maido da Iyali don amfani da wannan kuɗin don taimakawa sake haɗuwa da tsoffin yara masu ƙaura tare da iyalansu a matsayin wani ɓangare na kunshin tallafi ga tsoffin yara da iyalinsu.[52]

A lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, an kwashe yara miliyan 3.5 daga yankunan da ke cikin haɗarin bama-bamai zuwa yankunan karkara.[53] (Dubi Gudun fararen hula a Burtaniya a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu.)

Har ila yau, a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu, kusan yara 10,000 marasa matasan daga iyalai na Yahudawa a Turai da ke zaune a Nazi an kai shi lafiya a Burtaniya.

Binciken da aka kammala a shekarar 2012 ta Cibiyar Nazarin Shige da Fice, Manufofi da Al'umma ta Jami'ar Oxford (COMPAS) karkashin jagorancin Dokta Nando Sigona ya ba da haske game da halin da yara ba su da damar zama a Ingila.[54] Binciken, 'Babu hanyar fita, babu hanyar shiga: Yara masu ƙaura da iyalai a Burtaniya', ya kiyasta yawan yara 120,000 ba tare da matsayi ba, daga cikinsu 65,000 an haife su a Burtaniya ga iyaye ba tare da haƙƙin zama a kasar ba.

Amurka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin karni na 19 akwai yunkurin motsa yara daga biranen gabas da ke cike da mutane zuwa iyalan karkara na yamma da yamma da marayu. Mafi shahara shine motsi na jirgin kasa marayu.[55] Bugu da ƙari, an raba yaran 'yan asalin ƙasar Amirka daga iyalansu kuma an tura su makarantun kwana don tilasta musu su shiga cikin al'adun yamma.

Finland

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A lokacin yakin duniya na biyu, lokacin da Finland ke yaƙi da Rasha, kimanin yara 70 000 na Finnish an kai su jirgin ƙasa da jirgin ruwa galibi zuwa Sweden, amma kuma zuwa Norway da Denmark. Wadannan yara galibi ana kiransu yara na yaƙi. A ƙarshen yaƙin, dubban yara sun sami tallafi daga iyayensu "sabon".

Dubi kuma

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Ƙananan ba tare da wani ba
  • Tsaro na yara na kasa da kasa
  • Jerin dokokin kasa da kasa da na Turai game da kariya da ƙaura
  • Hakkin jin
  • Abubuwan da suka fi dacewa
  • Cinikin yara
  • Yaron Anchor
  • Jirgin yara

Haɗin waje

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Crawley, Heaven, Working with Children and Young People Subject to Immigration Control, Guidelines for best practice, Second Edition, Immigration Law Practitioners’ Association, 2012.
  2. ↑ "Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 14 (2013), par. 47". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  3. ↑ "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations Children's Fund, Safe and Sound, What States can do to ensure respect for the best interests of unaccompanied and separated children in Europe, 2014". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  4. ↑ "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR Guidelines on Formal Determination of the Best Interests of the Child, 2006". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  5. ↑ Tamanja, Emmanuel (2015-11-30). "Child Migration and Academic Performance: The Case of Basic Education in Ghana". Journal of Education and Practice. 7 (15): 109–120.
  6. ↑ Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 2.1
  7. ↑ European Commission, Tackling Multiple Discrimination: Practices, Policies and Laws, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, 2007.
  8. ↑ European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Handbook on European Non-discrimination Law, 2011.
  9. ↑ Hague Conference on Private International Law, Practical Handbook on the Operation of the 1996 Child Protection Convention, 2014.
  10. ↑ "Convention on the Rights of the Child". www.ohchr.org (in Turanci). Retrieved 2017-04-19.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Podeszfa, Leana and Friederike Vetter, Post-deportation Monitoring: Why, how and by whom?, University of Oxford, Refugee Study Centre, Forced Migration Review, Detention, alternatives to detention and deportation, Issue 44, September 2013, pp. 68-69, p. 68". Missing or empty |url= (help) Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Post-deportation Monitoring pp68-69" defined multiple times with different content
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Refugee Council, 'Between a rock and a hard place: the dilemma facing refused asylum seekers', December 2012". Missing or empty |url= (help) Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Between a rock and a hard place" defined multiple times with different content
  13. ↑ "United Nations Economic and Social Council, Guidelines on Justice in Matters involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime, Economic and Social Council Resolution 2005/20, 2005". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  14. ↑ "United Nations Economic and Social Council, Guidelines on Justice in Matters involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime, Economic and Social Council Resolution 2005/20, 22 July 2005, par. 7e". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  15. ↑ "United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, United Nations Children's Fund, Justice in Matters Involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime, Child-Friendly Version, 2009". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  16. ↑ "United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, United Nations Children's Fund, Justice in Matters Involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime, Model Law and Related Commentary, 2009". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  17. ↑ "United Nations Economic and Social Council, Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to the Economic and Social Council, E/2002/68/Add.1, 20 May 2002". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  18. ↑ "United Nations Children's Fund, Guidelines on the Protection of Child Victims of Trafficking, UNICEF Technical Notes, 2006". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  19. ↑ "European Council of Refugees and Exiles, Right to Justice: Quality Legal Assistance for Unaccompanied Children, Annex 1: Guiding principles for quality legal assistance for unaccompanied children, 2014". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  20. ↑ Vienna Convention on Consular Relations Article 5e and h
  21. ↑ Vienna Convention on Consular Relations Article 37b
  22. ↑ European Parliament and Council Directive 2004/38/EC of 29 April 2004 on the right of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 CARDET, Defence for Children International – Italy et al., IMPACT, Improving Monitoring and Protection Systems Against Child Trafficking and Exploitation, Transnational Analysis, 2013.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Conclusion on Children at Risk, Executive Committee Conclusions, No. 107(LVIII), 5 October 2007.
  25. ↑ Catholic Relief Services, Child Migration, The Detention and repatriation of unaccompanied Central American children from Mexico, Research Study, 2010, p. 3.
  26. ↑ Inter-Agency Group on Children on the Move, Why Children Matter, Experiences and lessons learnt from interventions to protect children on the move, The High Level Dialogue on International Migration and Development 2013
  27. ↑ Side Event to the 46th Session of the Commission on Population and Development: “New Trends in Migration: Demographic Aspects”, 24 April 2013, p. 3.
  28. ↑ Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, United Nations Children’s Fund, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Children and International Migration in Latin America and the Caribbean, Challenges, Newsletter on progress towards the Millennium Development Goals from a child rights perspective, Number 11, 2010, p. 2.
  29. ↑ Catholic Relief Services, Child Migration, The Detention and repatriation of unaccompanied Central American children from Mexico, Research Study, 2010, p. 5.
  30. ↑ United Nations Children’s Fund Innocenti Research Centre, Child Trafficking in Europe, A broad vision to put children first, Innocenti Insight, 2008, p. 12.
  31. ↑ United Nations Children’s Fund Innocenti Research Centre, Child Trafficking in the Nordic Countries, Rethinking strategies and national responses, A Technical Report, 2012, pp. 18-20.
  32. ↑ Europol, The THB Financial Business Model, Assessing the current state of knowledge, 2015, p. 13.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 I.L.O, UNICEF, and UN.GIFT (2009). "Training Manual to Fight Child Trafficking in Children for Labour, Sexual and Other Forms of Exploitation – Textbook 1: Understanding Child Trafficking" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 3, 2013. Retrieved February 9, 2012. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ↑ UN Trafficking Protocol, Article 3
  35. ↑ "Liste complète".
  36. ↑ The European Parliament and Council of the European Union, Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA, Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, 15 April 2011, par. 11.
  37. ↑ "United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime".
  38. ↑ United Nations Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime, Article 3.
  39. ↑ Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, Article 2(a).
  40. ↑ United Nations, Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, Transforming Our World – The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 2015.
  41. ↑ United Nations Children’s Fund, United Nations Population Division, University of Houston, International Migration, Children and Adolescents, Population Dynamics, October 2013, pp. 1, 4.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Cortina, Jeronimo, Children, Education and Migration: Win-win policy responses for co-development, QScience Proceedings, Family, Migration and Dignity Special Issue, University of Houston and United Nations Children’s Fund, Bloomsbury Qatar Foundation Journals, 2013, p. 2.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Anon (16 November 2009). "Australia 'sorry' for child abuse". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 17 November 2009. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "sorry" defined multiple times with different content
  44. ↑ "Speech | Prime Minister of Australia". Archived from the original on 2010-04-05. Retrieved 2010-03-11. PMs apology
  45. ↑ http://guides.slv.vic.gov.au/content.php?pid=55757&sid=582660 Adoption & Forgotten Australians - Child Migrants
  46. ↑ http://penkapeykovska.blogspot.hu/p/blog-page_20.html Peykovska, Penka, Child Migration, Child Labor and School Attainment. Evidence from the Bulgarian Community in Hungary (Late 19th to the 1930s)
  47. ↑ "Alberni School Victim Speaks Out". First Nations Drum. Archived from the original on July 26, 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-02.
  48. ↑ PM cites 'sad chapter' in apology for residential schools - cbc.ca, June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-12-02.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 49.3 Attard, Elaine. "Australian PM apologises for child abuse". The Malta Independent online. Standard Publications Ltd. Archived from the original on 20 November 2009. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
  50. ↑ "A child migration timeline". The Goldonian. Goldonian Web. Retrieved 2009-04-07.
  51. ↑ Child Labor By Sandy Hobbs, Jim McKechnie, Michael Lavalette p. 33, 34
  52. ↑ Anon. "Family Restoration Fund". Child migrants Trust. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
  53. ↑ Anon. "Home page". The Evacuees Reunion Association. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
  54. ↑ "No way out, no way in: Migrant children fall through the net". 2012-05-15.
  55. ↑ Torigoe, John (24 December 2008). "He rode the 'Orphan Train' across the country". CNN.

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