Mai kyau
A mafi yawan lokuta, ma'anar nagarta tana nuna halin da ya kamata a fi so lokacin da aka sanya shi tare da zabi tsakanin ayyukan da za a iya yi. Ana ɗaukar nagarta gabaɗaya a matsayin akasin Mugunta kuma tana da ɗabi''u, falsafar, da Addini. Takamaiman ma'anar da ma'anar kalmar da fassarorin da ke tattare da ita tsakanin harsuna na dā da na zamani suna nuna bambanci mai yawa a cikin juyawa da ma'ana, dangane da yanayin wuri da tarihi, ko na falsafa ko mahallin addini.
Tarihin ra'ayoyin Yamma
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Kowane harshe yana da kalma da ke nuna nagarta a ma'anar "kasancewa da inganci ko nagarta" (ἀρετή) da kuma mummunar ma'anar" wanda ba a so". Halin shari'a na ɗabi'a da bambanci "daidai da ba daidai ba, nagarta da mugunta" sune al'adun al'adu.[1]
Plato da Aristotle
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Kodayake tarihin asalin amfani da manufar da ma'ana "mai kyau" sun bambanta, sanannun tattaunawar Plato da Aristotle akan wannan batun sun kasance da tasiri na tarihi. Bayanan farko da aka gani a cikin Jamhuriyar Plato zuwa Tsarin Kyau suna cikin tattaunawar tsakanin Glaucon da Socrates (454c-d). Lokacin da muke ƙoƙarin amsa irin waɗannan tambayoyin da suka shafi ma'anar adalci, Plato ya gano cewa bai kamata mu " gabatar da kowane nau'i na bambanci da daidaito a cikin yanayi ba" maimakon haka dole ne mu mai da hankali kan "wani nau'i ne na daidaito da bambanci wanda ya dace da wasu hanyoyin rayuwa da kansu", wanda shine nau'in nagarta shine tushen fahimtar duk sauran siffofi, abin da ya ba mu damar fahimtar komai. Ta hanyar tattaunawar tsakanin Socrates da Glaucon abu mai kyau da ya bayyana, amma shine Plato ya bayyana ainihin gani.
Plato ya gano yadda nau'in nagarta ke ba da damar fahimtar irin waɗannan ra'ayoyin da ke da wahala kamar adalci. Ya bayyana ilimi da gaskiya a matsayin mahimmanci, amma ta hanyar Socrates (508d-e) ya ce, "mai kyau ya fi daraja". Daga nan sai ya ci gaba da bayyana cewa "ko da yake nagarta ba ta kasance ba" tana "fiye da ita a matsayi da iko", abin da "ke bayar da ilimi da gaskiya" (508e).
Ya bambanta da Plato, Aristotle ya tattauna siffofin nagarta a cikin sharuddan sau da yawa a cikin manyan ayyukansa na ɗabi'a, Eudemian da Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle ya yi jayayya cewa Tsarin nagarta na Plato bai da alaka da yadda mutum yake in ha baka jibanceshi ba, domin Plato bai sanya "nagarta" ga wani abu a duniyar da ke akwai ba. Saboda Tsarin Kyau na Plato ba ya bayyana abubuwan da suka faru a duniyar zahiri, mutane ba su da dalilin yin imani cewa Tsarin Kyau ya wanzu kuma Tsarin Kyau don haka, ba shi da mahimmanci ga ɗabi'ar ɗan adam.
Plato da Aristotle ba su ne masu ba da gudummawa na farko a tsohuwar Girka ba ga nazari "mai kyau" kuma ana iya samun tattaunawar da ta gabata tsakanin masana falsafa na pre-Socratic. A cikin wayewar Yamma, ma'anar ma'anar κακός da ἀγαθός sune "mummunan, matsoraci" da "mai kyau, jaruntaka, mai iyawa", kuma cikakkiyar ma'anarsu ta fito ne kawai a kusa da 400 BC, tare da Falsafar Pre-Socratic, musamman Democritus . [2] Ɗabi'a a cikin wannan cikakkiyar ma'anar ta ƙarfafa a cikin tattaunawar Plato, tare da fitowar tunanin allahntaka ɗaya (musamman a cikin Euthyphro, wanda ke la'akari da manufar ibada (τὸ ̆) a matsayin cikakkiyar ɗabi'a). An ci gaba da bunkasa ra'ayin a cikin Late Antiquity ta Neoplatonists, Gnostics, da Church Fathers.
Addinai na Yammacin Dā
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Baya ga karatun Girkanci na dā na "mai kyau", fiye da shekaru 2500 da suka gabata a gabashin Farisa ta dā wani masanin falsafa na addini mai suna Zoroaster ya sauƙaƙa pantheon na alloli na Iran na farko [3] zuwa dakarun adawa guda biyu: Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom) da Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit) waɗanda ke cikin rikici.
Ga kasashen yammacin duniya, wannan ra'ayin ya zama wanda ya haifar da ƙungiyoyi da yawa, wasu daga cikinsu sun rungumi mummunar imani cewa ya kamata a guje wa aiyana mutun ba atre an jibinceshiba kuma ya kamata a rungumi rayuwa ta zahiri. Ra'ayoyin Gnostic sun rinjayi addinai da yawa na dā, waɗanda ke koyar da cewa gnosis (wanda aka fassara daban-daban a matsayin Haskakawa, ceto, 'yanci, ko "ɗaya tare da Allah") ana iya isa ta hanyar yin aikin jin kai har zuwa batun talauci na mutum, abstinence na jima'i (kamar yadda zai yiwu ga masu ji da kuma gaba ɗaya ga masu farawa), da ƙwazo neman hikima ta hanyar taimaka wa wasu.
Wannan ci gaba daga dangi ko al'ada zuwa cikakke yana bayyane a cikin ka'idoji da ɗabi'aɗabi'a an samo su ne daga ka'idojin "al'adun yanki", Girkanci da Latin mores, bi da bi (duba kuma siðr).
Lokacin tsakiya a al'adun yamma
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
An kafa Falsafar Kirista ta zamani a kan aikin Bishop Augustine na Hippo da masanin tauhidi Thomas Aquinas, wanda ya fahimci mugunta dangane da Rashin kuskure na Littafi Mai-Tsarki da rashin daidaituwa na Littafi Mai Tsarki, da kuma tasirin Plato da Aristotle, a cikin godiyarsu game da manufar Summum bonum. Yin tunani mai shiru shine hanyar godiya ga Ma'anar Kyau.[4]
Yawancin masu ilimin tauhidin Kirista na zamani sun fadada kuma sun taƙaita ainihin manufar nagarta da mugunta har sai sun sami ma'anoni da yawa, wani lokacin ma'anonin rikitarwa kamar:
- son kai ko hukunci na ra'ayi game da duk wani batun da zai iya samun yabo ko hukunci daga Hukumomin addini
- wajibai na addini wanda ya samo asali daga Dokar Allah wanda ke haifar da tsarkaka ko la'ana
- dabi'ar al'adu da aka yarda da ita wanda zai iya inganta rayuwa rukuni ko wadata
- doka ta halitta ko halayyar da ke haifar da mummunar motsin rai
- dokar doka da ke sanya aiki doka
Ra'ayoyin zamani
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Kant
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ Donald Brown (1991) Human Universals. Philadelphia, Temple University Press (online summary).
- ↑ Charles H. Kahn, Democritus and the Origins of Moral Psychology, The American Journal of Philology (1985)
- ↑ Boyce 1979
- ↑ A. Kojeve, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel (1980) p. 108
Muhimmin mahallin haskakawa don nazarin "mai kyau" shine muhimmancinsa a cikin nazarin "mai nagarta, gaskiya, da kyakkyawa" kamar yadda aka samu a cikin Immanuel Kant da sauran masana falsafa da masu tunani na addini. Kant ne ya gudanar da waɗannan tattaunawar, musamman a cikin mahallin Critique of Practical Reason .
Rashin da aka yi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Littafin John Rawls mai suna A Theory of Justice ya ba da fifiko ga shirye-shiryen zamantakewa da kayayyaki, bisa ga gudummawar da suka bayar ga adalci. Rawls ya bayyana adalci a matsayin adalci, musamman a rarraba kayan zamantakewa, ya bayyana adalci dangane da hanyoyin, kuma ya yi ƙoƙari ya tabbatar da cewa cibiyoyin da rayuwa masu kyau suna da kyau, idan ana ɗaukar kayan kowane mutum mai ma'ana daidai. Babban abin da Rawls ya kirkira shi ne Matsayi na asali, hanyar da mutum ke ƙoƙarin yin yanke shawara ta ɗabi'a ta hanyar ƙin barin gaskiyar mutum game da kansa ya shiga lissafin ɗabi'ar mutum.
Hamayya da mugunta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin addini, ɗabi'a, da falsafar, "mai kyau da mugunta" wani abu ne na yau da kullun. A cikin al'adu tare da tasirin addini na Manichaean da Ibrahimic, ana ganin mugunta a matsayin kishiyar nagarta. Mai kyau shine abin da ya kamata ya yi nasara kuma ya kamata a ci mugunta.[1]
A matsayin ra'ayi na addini, ra'ayoyin asali na rarrabuwa tsakanin nagarta da mugunta sun bunkasa a al'adun yamma don haka a yau:
- Kyakkyawan ra'ayi ne mai zurfi, amma yawanci yana hulɗa da dangantaka da rayuwa, sadaka, ci gaba, farin ciki, soyayya, da adalci
- Mugunta yawanci tana da alaƙa da aikata laifi da gangan, nuna bambanci da aka tsara don cutar da wasu, wulakanci ga mutanen da aka tsara su don rage bukatunsu na tunani da mutunci, lalacewa, da ayyukan da ba dole ba da / ko tashin hankali ba tare da nuna bambanci ba [2]
- matsalar Yanayin ɗan adam da ikon su na yin ayyukan kirki da mugunta
A cikin addinin Buddha
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin al'adu tare da rinjayen Buddha, dole ne a shawo kan wannan adawa da kanta ta hanyar cimma Śūnyatā, ko komai. Wannan shine ganewa da nagarta da mugunta ba su da alaƙa, amma ɓangarori biyu na mafi girma; hadin kai, Monism.[1]
A fannin ilmin halitta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Ɗabi'a tana ɗaukar wasu masana kimiyyar halittu (musamman Edward O. Wilson, Jeremy Griffith, David Sloan Wilson, da Frans na Waal) a matsayin muhimmiyar tambaya da za a magance ta fannin ilmin halitta.[3][4][5][6]
Dubi kuma
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Samfuri:Good and evilSamfuri:Ethics
Ƙarin bayanai
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Haɗin waje
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Paul O. Ingram, Frederick John Streng. Buddhist-Christian Dialogue: Mutual Renewal and Transformation. University of Hawaii Press, 1986. P. 148-149.
- ↑ Ervin Staub. Overcoming evil: genocide, violent conflict, and terrorism. New York, New York, USA: Oxford University Press, Pp. 32.
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