Yunkurin kare hakkin dan adam a Tarayyar Soviet
 Yunkurin kare hakkin dan adam a Tarayyar Soviet | |
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human rights movement (en)  | |
| Bayanai | |
| Ƙasa | Kungiyar Sobiyet |
A shekara ta 1965 wani yunkuri na kare hakkin dan adam ya fito a cikin USSR. Wadanda ke da hannu sosai ba su da imani guda ɗaya. Mutane da yawa suna son 'yancin farar hula iri-iri - 'yancin faɗar albarkacin baki, na imani na addini, na' yancin kai na kasa. Ga wasu yana da mahimmanci a samar da rikodin gaskiya na abin da ke faruwa a kasar, ba sigar da aka tsara sosai da aka bayar a kafofin watsa labarai na hukuma ba. Sauran har yanzu sun kasance "masu kwaminisanci masu gyara" waɗanda suka yi tunanin zai yiwu a canza tsarin Soviet don mafi kyau.
A hankali, a karkashin matsin ayyukan hukuma da martani wadannan kungiyoyi da abubuwan da suka fi so sun haɗu a cikin masu adawa. Yakin kare hakkin bil'adama da na dan adam ya mayar da hankali kan batutuwan 'yancin faɗar albarkacin baki,' 'yancin lamiri, 'yancin yin ƙaura, maganin azabtarwa, da kuma halin da fursunonin siyasa ke ciki. An nuna shi da sabon budewa na rashin amincewa, damuwa game da doka, kin amincewa da duk wani 'ƙaskiya' da gwagwarmayar tashin hankali.[1]
Kamar sauran masu adawa a cikin Tarayyar Soviet bayan Stalin, masu fafutukar kare hakkin dan adam sun kasance ƙarƙashin matakai masu yawa. Sun sami gargadi daga 'yan sanda da KGB; wasu sun rasa ayyukansu, wasu an ɗaure su ko kuma an tsare su a Asibitocin mahaukaci; an tura masu adawa gudun hijira a cikin ƙasar ko kuma an matsa musu su yi hijira.:145
Hanyoyi da ayyuka
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Takardun Samizdat
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Takardun zalunci na siyasa da kuma martani na 'yan ƙasa a gare su ta hanyar samizdat (bugawa da kansa ba tare da izini ba) sun taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen kafa ƙungiyar kare hakkin dan adam. Masu adawa sun tattara kuma sun rarraba rubuce-rubuce, bude wasiƙu da roko da suka shafi takamaiman shari'o'in zalunci na siyasa.
Misali don wannan nau'in rubuce-rubuce shine rikodin ɗan jarida Frida Vigdorova na shari'ar mawaki Joseph Brodsky (wanda aka yanke masa hukunci saboda "Rashin jituwa na zamantakewa" a farkon 1964). [2] Masu adawa sun ɗauki irin wannan aikin rubuce-rubuce a cikin wallafe-wallafen kamar Alexander Ginzburg's White Book (1967, a kan shari'ar Sinyavsky-Daniel) [c 1] da Pavel Litvinov's The Trial of the Four (1968, a kan shari-ar Galanskov-Ginzburg). [c 2]
Daga 1968 zuwa gaba, samizdat na lokaci-lokaci A Chronicle of Current Events ya taka muhimmiyar rawa ga ƙungiyar kare hakkin dan adam. An kafa shi a watan Afrilu na shekara ta 1968, Tarihi ya gudana har zuwa shekara ta 1983, yana samar da batutuwa 65 a cikin shekaru 14. [c 3]Ya rubuta manyan take hakkin dan adam da gwamnatin Soviet ta yi da kuma wallafe-wallafen samizdat masu tasowa (takardun siyasa, fiction, fassarori) da ke yawo tsakanin masu sukar da masu adawa.
Wasiƙu da korafe-korafe
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Podpisanty, a zahiri masu sa hannu, mutane ne waɗanda suka sanya hannu kan jerin takardun shaida ga jami'ai da manema labarai na Soviet game da gwajin siyasa na tsakiyar zuwa ƙarshen shekarun 1960. [c 4]Hawan da aka yi ya kai ga yawan ruwa a lokacin Shari'ar marubuta Aleksandr Ginzburg da Yuri Galanskov a watan Janairun 1968. ::280 Hukumomi sun amsa wannan ƙalubalen ta hanyar ba da kowane mai ba da shawara tsakanin musantawa da wani nau'in horo na sana'a.:151:177ff.;191ff,:177ff.;191ff Duk da haka, a shekara ta 1968 sama da mutane 1500 sun sanya hannu kan roko don nuna rashin amincewa da shari'o'i daban-daban.
Masu adawa da Soviet na farko da suka yi kira ga jama'a a duniya sune Larisa Bogoraz da Pavel Litvinov, wadanda suka rubuta wasika ta bude don nuna rashin amincewa da shari'ar marubutan samizdat Alexander Ginsburg da Yuri Galanskov a watan Janairun 1968. Roƙo ga al'ummomin duniya da hukumomin kare hakkin dan adam daga baya ya zama babbar hanyar kungiyoyin masu adawa da jama'a na farko kamar Action Group da Kwamitin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam, da kuma Helsinki Watch Groups.
Nuni
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Ƙayyadadden iyaka da adadi, zanga-zangar da yawa duk da haka sun zama muhimman alamun yunkurin kare hakkin dan adam.
A ranar 5 ga Disamba 1965 (Ranar Tsarin Mulki ta Soviet) wani karamin taro a Moscow, wanda aka fi sani da (Taron glasnost), zanga-zangar farko ta jama'a da kuma siyasa ta faru a cikin USSR bayan Stalin. Da yake amsa zarge-zargen aikata laifuka a kan marubutan Andrei Sinyavsky da Yuli Daniel (bincike na Sinyavsky-Daniel), 'yan mutane da yawa sun taru a Pushkin Square, suna kira ga shari'a a buɗe ga jama'a da kafofin watsa labarai (glasny sud), kamar yadda Dokar Shari'a ta RSFSR ta 1961 ta buƙaci. Wannan zanga-zangar ta kasance daya daga cikin ayyukan farko da aka shirya ta ƙungiyar kare hakkin bil'adama a Tarayyar Soviet. Taron shiru a wannan ranar ya zama taron shekara-shekara.
Irin wannan zanga-zangar ta biyo baya a watan Janairun 1967, lokacin da wani rukuni na matasa masu zanga-zambe suka yi zanga-zanga game da kamawar marubuta na samizdat, da kuma gabatar da sabbin sassan ga Dokar Laifuka wanda ya hana haƙƙin yin zanga-zanga.:74
Da yake mayar da martani ga mamayar Soviet a Czechoslovakia, a ranar 25 ga watan Agustan shekara ta 1968 'yan adawa bakwai sun nuna a Red Square (duniyar Red Square ta shekara ta 1968). [c 5]Daga baya aka yanke wa mahalarta hukuncin ɗaurin kurkuku a sansanonin aiki, korarsu zuwa Siberia ko ɗaurin kurkukun asibitoci.
A ranar 30 ga Oktoba 1974, masu adawa sun fara Ranar Fursunonin Siyasa a cikin USSR, wanda aka yi niyyar wayar da kan jama'a game da wanzuwar da yanayin fursunonin siyasa a duk faɗin Tarayyar Soviet. [c 6]An yi alama da yajin aikin yunwa a cikin kurkuku da sansanonin aiki, kuma ya zama taron shekara-shekara da fursunonin siyasa suka yi alama a sansanonin aikin.
Ƙungiyoyin tsaro na jama'a
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Farawa tare da Action (Initiative) Group da aka kafa a shekarar 1969 ta masu adawa 15 da Kwamitin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam a cikin USSR wanda Andrei Sakharov ya kafa a shekarar 1970, kungiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam na Soviet na farko sun ba da izini ga aikinsu ta hanyar ambaton ka'idodin da aka tsara a cikin kundin tsarin mulkin Soviet da yarjejeniyar kasa da kasa.
Wadannan yunkurin daga baya sun sami nasara daga Ƙungiyar Moscow Helsinki Group (wanda aka kafa a shekara ta 1977). Kungiyar da kuma kungiyoyin tsaro da aka tsara bayan ya kawo masu adawa da haƙƙin ɗan adam ga karuwar kulawa ta duniya.
Kungiyoyin masu adawa da jama'a da na kare hakkin dan adam sun fuskanci matsanancin zalunci, tare da yawancin mambobin da ke fuskantar ɗaurin kurkuku, maganin horo, ko gudun hijira.
Taimako ga fursunonin lamiri
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Iyalai na masu adawa da aka kama sau da yawa suna fama da sakamako kamar asarar ayyuka da damar karatu. Dangi da abokai na fursunonin siyasa sun goyi bayan juna ta hanyar hanyoyin sadarwar masu sa kai. Daga shekara ta 1974 zuwa gaba, wannan tallafin ya sami karbuwa daga Asusun Taimako na Solzhenitsyn wanda marubucin mai adawa da aka fitar da shi Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn ya kafa. Duk da iyakantaccen albarkatu da kuma zalunci da KGB ta yi, an yi amfani da shi don rarraba kudade da tallafi ga iyalan fursunoni.
Tarihi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin shirin Nikita Khrushchev na 1956 "Maganar Asirin" wanda ke Allah wadai da laifuka na Stalinism da kuma sauye-sauyen siyasa masu zuwa (Khrushchev Thaw), abubuwan da suka faru da yawa sun zama tushen motsi na masu adawa da ke mai da hankali kan 'yanci da' yancin ɗan adam.
Karatun shayari na Mayakovsky Square
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Babban motsi ga halin yanzu na rashin amincewa da aka sani daga baya a matsayin yunkurin kare hakkin bil'adama ya fito ne daga mutanen da ke da damuwa da 'yancin wallafe-wallafen da al'adu. A lokacin 1960-61 kuma a cikin 1965, karatun shayari na jama'a a cikin Mayakovsky Square na Moscow (Mayakovsky Square shayari karantawa) ya zama dandamali don rashin amincewar adabi na siyasa. Tushen matakan da suka fara daga korar jami'o'i zuwa dogon sansanin aiki ga wasu daga cikin mahalarta, tarurruka na yau da kullun sun zama incubator ga masu fafutuka da yawa na ƙungiyar kare hakkin dan adam, gami da marubuci Alexander Ginzburg da ɗalibi Vladimir Bukovsky.
Masu adawa a tsakiyar shekarun 1960
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A tsakiyar shekarun 1960, muryoyin masu adawa a Tarayyar Soviet sun hada da ƙungiyoyin ƙasashe da aka fitar da su a ƙarƙashin Stalin, ƙungiyoyin addini waɗanda ke adawa da umarnin adawa da addini, da sauran kungiyoyi kamar su 'yan kwaminisanci masu gyara da ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu.
Wasu daga baya masu gwagwarmayar kare hakkin dan adam sun fito ne daga ƙungiyar 'yan kwaminisanci da ke kusa da Pyotr Grigorenko, janar na sojojin Ukraine wanda ya fadi daga tagomashi a farkon shekarun 1960. Tatars na Crimea, wata kabilanci da aka kore ta a karkashin Stalin kuma wacce ta kafa wata ƙungiya da ke neman komawa ƙasarsu, za ta zama wahayi ga masu fafutukar kare hakkin dan adam, kuma shugabansu Mustafa Dzhemilev daga baya ya kasance mai aiki a cikin yunkurin kare hakkin dan Adam. Sauran wadanda suka yi tasiri a kan motsi na gaba sun kasance masu gwagwarmayar addini, kamar su firist na Orthodox na Rasha Gleb Yakunin, wanda ya rubuta wata wasika mai tasiri ga Shugaban Moscow Alexius I a shekarar 1965, yana jayayya cewa dole ne a 'yantar da Ikilisiya daga cikakken iko na jihar Soviet.
Shirye-shiryen kare hakkin bil'adama da na 'yan adam na shekarun 1960 da 1970 sun sami nasarar karfafa irin waɗannan ra'ayoyi daban-daban a cikin masu adawa ta hanyar mai da hankali kan batutuwan 'yancin faɗar albarkacin baki,' yancin lamiri,' yanci yin ƙaura, da fursunonin siyasa. Wannan motsi ya zama sananne ne ta hanyar "ra'ayin zanga-zangar jama'a a matsayin aikin existentialist, wanda ba a ɗauke shi da wani ma'anar siyasa ba".[3]
Tarihi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Fitowar "masu kare haƙƙoƙi"
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Kungiyar masu fafutukar kare hakkin dan adam a Tarayyar Soviet ta kafa ne sakamakon abubuwan da suka faru da yawa a cikin 1966-68. Da yake nuna ƙarshen 'yanci na Khrushchev (Khrushchev Thaw) da kuma farkon zamanin Brezhnev (Brezhnev stagnation), waɗannan shekarun sun ga karuwar zalunci na siyasa. An gurfanar da wasu marubuta da masu adawa da gargadi game da komawa ga Stalinism, kuma an murkushe farkon sauye-sauyen siyasa a Jamhuriyar Socialist ta Czechoslovakia (Prague Spring) da karfi na soja.
Mutanen da ke da hankali sun mayar da martani ta hanyar yin korafi game da cin zarafi da kuma rubuta su a cikin samizdat (yan jarida na karkashin kasa), kuma ƙaramin rukuni ya juya zuwa yin zanga-zanga a bayyane kuma a ƙarshe ya fara yin kira ga al'ummar duniya. Wadanda suka nace kan zanga-zangar cin zarafin haƙƙin sun zama sanannun "masu kare haƙƙin" (pravozashchitniki). Guje wa sharhin ɗabi'a da siyasa don nuna kulawa sosai ga batutuwan shari'a da tsari, sun bukaci a kiyaye dokokin da ke akwai da haƙƙoƙin da gwamnatin Soviet ta tabbatar. Wannan tsarin ya zama sananne ga kungiyoyin zamantakewa daban-daban a cikin millieu mai adawa, daga malamai zuwa masu gwagwarmaya a cikin al'adun matasa.
Shari'ar Sinyavsky-Daniel (1966) - Ayyukan kare haƙƙin farko
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A tsakiyar shekarun 1960, an gurfanar da marubuta da yawa da suka yi gargadi game da komawa ga Stalinism a gaban shari'a. Ɗaya daga cikin irin wannan shari'ar ita ce shari'ar Yuli Daniel da Andrei Sinyavsky ta 1966, marubuta biyu waɗanda suka buga rubuce-rubucen satirical a ƙarƙashin sunayen da ba a sani ba a Yamma. An yanke musu hukuncin shekaru bakwai a sansanin aiki saboda "rashin jituwa da Soviet". Mutane da yawa a cikin masu basira sun fahimci shari'ar a matsayin dawowa ga gwajin nuna Soviet da ya gabata. Ya haifar da zanga-zangar da yawa da kuma yakin neman zabe, galibi a Moscow da Leningrad, wanda ke jaddada batutuwan 'yancin kirkira da rawar tarihi na marubucin a cikin al'ummar Rasha. A watan Disamba na shekara ta 1965, shari'ar Sinyavsky-Daniel ta haifar da karamin masu adawa da suka yanke shawarar mayar da hankali kan halattaccen shari'ar. Masanin lissafi Alexander Esenin-Volpin tare da taimakon marubucin Yuri Galanskov da ɗalibi Vladimir Bukovsky sun shirya wani taro mara izini a Pushkin Square ("Taron glasnost"). Masu zanga-zangar sun bukaci a bude fitina ga marubutan kamar yadda Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Soviet ya tabbatar. "Kotu ta Jama'a" da aka rarraba ta hanyar samizdat ta sanar da masu zanga-zangar da ake keta haƙƙin da ake yi a cikin shari'ar kuma ta sanar da su yiwuwar zanga-zambe ta doka.
Irin wannan mayar da hankali kan kiran haƙƙoƙi a bayyane ya ga 'yan adawa da yawa a matsayin utopia, kuma zanga-zangar ba ta da tasiri, tana ɗauke da haɗarin kamawa, asarar aiki ko ɗaurin kurkuku.::275 Duk da haka, wasu masu adawa kamar Bukovsky ne suka ɗauki wannan hanyar, waɗanda suka shirya zanga-zanga game da gabatar da sabbin sassan da ya ɗauka ba bisa ka'ida ba, kuma suka yi kira ga Dokar Laifuka da Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Soviet a lokacin shari'arsa a watan Satumbar 1967.
Bayan shari'ar Sinyavsky da Daniel, marubutan Alexander Ginzburg da Yuri Galanskov, wadanda a baya suka shirya litattafan waka da yawa, sun tattara takardu da suka shafi shari'ar a cikin tarin samizdat da ake kira The White Book (1966). Da yake nuna cewa ya dauki wannan aikin a matsayin doka, Ginzburg ya aika da kwafin ga KGB, Kwamitin Tsakiya na Jam'iyyar Kwaminis da kuma masu bugawa a kasashen waje.
Shari'ar Hudu (1967) - Ƙarin zanga-zangar da samizdat
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A shekara ta 1967, an tsare Alexander Ginzburg da Yuri Galanskov tare da wasu masu adawa biyu kuma an tuhume su da "rashin jituwa da Soviet" saboda aikin su a kan White Book . An yanke wa Ginzburg hukuncin shekaru biyar, Galanskov hukuncin shekaru bakwai a sansanin aiki. Shari'arsu ta zama wata alama a cikin yunkurin kare hakkin dan adam kuma ta haifar da sabunta zanga-zangar (Trial of the Four).
A watan Janairun 1967, an shirya zanga-zangar adawa da kama Ginzburg da Galanskov, da kuma gabatar da sabbin dokoki da ke rarraba tarurrukan jama'a ko zanga-zambe a matsayin laifi.[4] An kama Vladimir Bukovsky, Vadim Delaunay, Victor Khaustov da Evgeny Kushev saboda shirya da shiga. A shari'arsa ta rufe a watan Satumbar 1967, Bukovsky ya yi amfani da kalmominsa na ƙarshe don kai farmaki ga gazawar gwamnatin ta mutunta doka ko bin hanyoyin shari'a a cikin gudanar da shari'ar.: 74-75 Kalmominsa na ƙarshe a kotu sun bazu ko'ina a cikin samizdat kuma sun zama wani ɓangare na tarin kayan aiki game da shari'ar da Pavel Litvinov ya yi.:87–95
A cikin shekarun 1967 da 1968, Shari'ar Hudu ta haifar da sabuntawa na abubuwan da suka shafi (masu sanya hannu), mutanen da suka sanya hannu kan jerin takardun da suka shafi zalunci da sake sakewa.: 177-80: 191-95 A wannan lokacin, an sanya hannu kan irin waɗannan wasikun a cikin haɗari mai yawa: Wadanda suka sanya hannu sun fuskanci raguwa ko korar su daga aiki; membobin jam'iyyar sun fuskanci korarsu kuma sun hana aiki.:151
A watan Janairun 1968, masanin harshe Larisa Bogoraz (matar marubucin da aka tsare Yuli Daniyel) da malamin kimiyyar lissafi Pavel Litvinov sun rubuta wasika don nuna rashin amincewa da shari'ar Ginzburg da Galanskov. Roƙon ya tashi daga al'adar da aka yarda da ita na yin kira ga jami'an Soviet kuma ya zama roƙon kai tsaye na farko daga masu adawa ga jama'ar duniya. Da yake tunatar da masu karatu game da ta'addanci na Stalinism, Bogoraz da Litvinov sun lissafa dalla-dalla keta doka da adalci da aka aikata a lokacin shari'ar, kuma sun nemi Soviet da jama'ar duniya su bukaci a saki fursunoni daga tsare kuma a sake maimaita shari'ar a gaban masu lura da kasa. An sanya hannu kan takardar tare da cikakken sunayensu da adiresoshin su.[3]
1968 Red Square zanga-zangar (1968)
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
A watan Agustan 1968, Prague Spring ya zama babban ci gaba na biyu wanda ya haifar da yunkurin kare hakkin dan adam. Ga yawancin mambobi masu basira, sauye-sauyen siyasa na Alexander Dubček suna da alaƙa da fatan raguwar zalunci da "socialism tare da fuskar mutum". A watan Agustan 1968, Tarayyar Soviet da manyan abokanta a cikin Yarjejeniyar Warsaw sun mamaye Jamhuriyar Socialist ta Czechoslovakia don dakatar da sake fasalin.[5]
A ranar 25 ga watan Agustan shekara ta 1968, masu adawa bakwai sun nuna a Red Square na Moscow game da mamayewar Soviet na Czechoslovakia (duniyar Red Square ta shekara ta 1968). An kama dukkan mahalarta. Babu wani daga cikin mahalarta da ya yarda da laifi, kuma daga baya aka yanke musu hukuncin zuwa sansanin aiki ko ɗaurin kurkuku. Mawallafi Rana Natalya Gorbanevskaya ta tattara shaidu game da zanga-zangar a matsayin Noon (1968) kafin a ɗaure ta a shekarar 1970.
Yunkurin kare hakkin dan adam na farko
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Tarihin Abubuwan da ke faruwa a yanzu (1968-1982)
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
A sakamakon hulɗa tsakanin dangin fursunonin siyasa da karuwar ayyukan samizdat a yayin gwaji, manya da matasa masu ra'ayi mai mahimmanci a Moscow (daga baya za a san su da Masu adawa) sun fuskanci karuwar bayanai game da ci gaba da cin zarafin siyasa a Tarayyar Soviet.
A watan Afrilu na shekara ta 1968, yayin da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta ayyana Shekarar 'Yancin Dan Adam ta Duniya, editocin da ba a san su ba a Moscow sun fitar da fitowar farko ta Tarihin Abubuwan da suka faru a yanzu.[6] Labarin samizdat da aka rubuta ya ɗauki salon takaddun shaida kuma ya ba da rahoton ayyukan masu adawa, bayyanar sabbin wallafe-wallafen samizdat (na karkashin kasa), matakan zalunci na Jihar Soviet, da yanayin da ke cikin tsarin gidan yari. Kowane fitowar da ta biyo baya na Tarihi yana ɗauke da kalmomin Mataki na 19 na Sanarwar Duniya ta 1948 ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta 'Yancin Dan Adam a shafi na farko:
"Kowane mutum yana da 'yancin ra'ayi da faɗar albarkacin baki; wannan haƙƙin ya haɗa da' yancin riƙe ra'ayoyi ba tare da tsangwama ba da neman, karɓa da ba da bayanai da ra'ayoyin ta hanyar kowane kafofin watsa labarai kuma ba tare da la'akari da iyakoki ba. "
A cikin shekaru 15 na wanzuwarsa, Tarihi ya fadada ɗaukar hoto don haɗawa da kowane nau'i na zalunci a kan kasashe masu zaman kansu, masu ikirari da kabilun Tarayyar Soviet Socialist Republics . [7] Ya yi aiki a matsayin kashin baya na ƙungiyar kare hakkin dan adam a Tarayyar Soviet.[3] Duk da mummunar zalunci (kamar "Kasuwa No. 24" na KGB) da kuma ɗaure yawancin editocinsa, za a tattara kuma a rarraba fiye da sittin na Tarihi (an buga shi) tsakanin Afrilu 1968 zuwa Agusta 1983.
Duk da yake fitowar 1 ta kasance ɗan gajeren littafi, wanda ya fi mayar da hankali kan shari'ar Janairu 1968 na Alexander Ginzburg da Yury Galanskov da kuma martani na jama'a ga waɗanda aka rufe sauraron shari'a a Moscow, fitowar ƙarshe da aka buga (wanda aka kewaya) da fassara, No 64, ya fi shafuka ɗari kuma abubuwan da ke ciki sun lissafa gwaji, tsare-tsare da yanayi a ciki da waje da sansanoni, kurkuku da asibitocin kwakwalwa a duk faɗin Tarayyar Soviet.[8]
Kungiyar Ayyuka; Kwamitin; sashen Soviet na Amnesty International (1969-1979)
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Duk da yake yunkurin kare hakkin dan adam na farko ya mamaye masu gwagwarmaya, ƙarshen shekarun 1960 sun ga bayyanar kungiyoyin kare hakkin bil'adama da na farko a Tarayyar Soviet.
Kafa wadannan kungiyoyi ya karya haramtacciyar aiki na jama'a ta hanyar tsarin da ba na gwamnati ba.
Jaridu na Soviet suna kai farmaki ga masu adawa saboda alaƙa da kungiyoyin 'yan gudun hijira kamar su NTS na Frankfurt ko National Alliance of Russian Solidarists. Ya zama kamar a bayyane cewa Jiha za ta amsa ga kirkirar wata kungiya a cikin USSR ta hanyar kama dukkan mambobinta nan da nan. Sabbin kungiyoyin sun halatta aikinsu ta hanyar ambaton ka'idodin da aka tsara a cikin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Soviet na yanzu (1936) kuma, a karo na farko, ta hanyar yin kira ga yarjejeniyoyin kasa da kasa (waɗansu daga cikinsu USSR za su zama mai sanya hannu a lokaci). Kowace sabuwar kungiya ta yi hankali sosai don jaddada halattaccen ayyukanta.
- Ƙungiyar Initiative (ko Action) ta 'Yancin Dan Adam a cikin USSR an kafa ta ne a watan Mayu na shekara ta 1969 ta Masu adawa da Soviet don haɗa kan' yancin ɗan adam da ke akwai kuma sun fara ayyukanta tare da takarda ga Hukumar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan 'Yancin Mutum da sauran hukumomin duniya a madadin wadanda aka zalunta Soviet.[9] Ya haɗa da mahimman adadi daga sanarwar kare haƙƙin Tarihi na abubuwan da suka faru a yanzu mambobi biyu daga Ukraine (Altunyan da Plyushch) da kuma matashi mai fafutukar Crimean Tatar Mustafa Dzhemilev a Tashkent. A watan Mayu na shekara ta 1970, an kama shida daga cikin mambobi goma sha biyar na asali ko kuma an tura su gudun hijira kuma a cikin shekarun da suka biyo baya za a tilasta wa wasu zuwa ƙaura. Kungiyar ba ta taɓa rushewa a hukumance ba, amma an kama memba na ƙarshe mai suna Tatyana Velikanova a 1979 kuma an ɗaure shi a shekara mai zuwa.[10]
- Kwamitin 'Yancin Dan Adam a cikin USSR an kafa shi ne a watan Nuwamba 1970 ta hanyar Andrei Sakharov tare da masana kimiyyar lissafi Andrei Tverdokhlebov da Valery Chalidze . Ya yi niyyar yin amfani da tsarin ilimi, bincika aikace-aikacen haƙƙin ɗan adam a cikin mahallin gurguzu kuma ya kasance a kan mujallar samizdat ta Chalidze Social Problems .: 77 Kwamitin ya yada take hakkin dan adam, ya tattara sa hannu don korafe-korafe, ya halarci gwaji kuma ya yi nasarar shiga cikin kungiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam da yawa na duniya.[11] A watan Disamba na shekara ta 1972 Tverdokhlebov ya yi murabus daga kwamitin "saboda dalilai masu zaman kansu"; Chalidze ya kuma yi murabur a matsayin daya daga cikin masu ba da shawara na kwamitin bayan an cire shi daga matsayin ɗan ƙasar Soviet yayin da yake kan yawon shakatawa na Amurka.[12]
- Sashe na Soviet na Amnesty International an kafa shi ne a watan Oktoba na shekara ta 1973 ta ƙungiyar masu ilimi 11 ciki har da Andrei Tverdokhlebov, Valentin Turchin, Yuri Orlov, Sergei Kovalev, a cikin wannan watan yayin da USSR ta tabbatar da Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan 'Yancin Bil'adama da Siyasa.[13] An yi rajista a watan Satumbar 1974 ta Sakatariyar Amnesty International a London.
Rikicin da kuma karbuwa ta duniya (1972-1975)
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin 1972, KGB ta fara "Kotu ta 24", wani gagarumin kisan gilla da aka yi niyyar murkushe Tarihin Abubuwan da ke faruwa a yanzu. An zarge su da "rashin jituwa da farfaganda na Soviet", biyu daga cikin masu gyara da aka kama, Petr Yakir da Victor Krasin, sun fara aiki tare da masu tambayoyin su. An kira masu adawa sama da ɗari biyu don yin tambayoyi kuma maza biyu sun bayyana a gidan talabijin na ƙasa, suna nuna nadama ga ayyukan da suka gabata.[14] Za a ci gaba da kamawa, ya yi barazanar KGB, ga kowane fitowar Tarihi da aka buga bayan watsa shirye-shiryen TV.: 31-32 Ko da yake an tattara kayan kuma an gyara su kamar yadda suka gabata, an dakatar da yaduwar Tarihin Abubuwan da ke faruwa a yanzu a farkon shekara ta 1972 kuma ba ta ci gaba ba har sai Mayu 1974.[15] Kamar yadda yawancin masu ba da gudummawa da masu gyara na sanarwar suna da alaƙa da Ƙungiyar Initiative for Human Rights a cikin USSR, zalunci ya kuma haifar da hukunce-hukunce ga yawancin membobinta.[16]:169
Da yake fuskantar fitowar fassarar Turanci da Faransanci na The Gulag Archipelago, shugabancin Soviet sun yanke shawarar kama Alexandr Solzhenitsyn, su cire shi daga matsayin ɗan ƙasar Soviet kuma su kore shi a watan Fabrairun 1974 zuwa Jamus ta Yamma.[17] Da yake amfani da kudaden sarauta daga tallace-tallace na Gulag Archipelago, Solzhenitsyn ya kafa asusun a Switzerland (Solzhenitsyn Aid Fund) kuma tare da taimakon Alexander Ginzburg an rarraba kudi a duk faɗin Tarayyar Soviet ga fursunonin siyasa da na addini da iyalansu.[18][19]
A watan Satumbar 1974, Sakatariyar Amnesty International ta yi rajistar sashen Soviet na Amnesty International a London.
A watan Disamba na shekara ta 1975 an ba Andrei Sakharov kyautar Nobel ta zaman lafiya "saboda gwagwarmayarsa don haƙƙin ɗan adam, don kawar da makamai, da kuma hadin kai tsakanin dukkan ƙasashe".[20] Ba a yarda ya bar Tarayyar Soviet don karɓar shi ba. Matarsa Yelena Bonner ce ta karanta jawabinsa a bikin da ke Oslo, Norway.[21] A ranar da aka ba da kyautar, Sakharov yana Vilnius, yana neman shigar da shi a shari'ar mai fafutukar kare hakkin dan adam Sergei Kovalev . A cikin lacca na Nobel, mai taken "Palama, Ci gaba, 'Yancin Dan Adam", Sakharov ya haɗa da jerin fursunonin lamiri da fursunonin siyasa a cikin USSR, yana mai cewa ya raba kyautar tare da su.[22]
Lokacin Helsinki (1975-1981)
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Magana game da abubuwan da ke cikin Ayyukan Ƙarshe na Helsinki sun fara yaduwa ta hanyar watsa shirye-shiryen Yammacin BBC da Rediyon Liberty. An gabatar da shi a matsayin nasarar diflomasiyya na Tarayyar Soviet, an sake buga rubutun takardar a cikin Pravda . [23]
Manazarta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ Daniel, Alexander (2002). "Истоки и корни диссидентской активности в СССР" [Sources and roots of dissident activity in the USSR]. Неприкосновенный запас [Emergency Ration] (in Rashanci). 1 (21).
- ↑ Vigdorova, Frida; Katz, Michael R. (2014). "The Trial of Joseph Brodsky" (PDF). New England Review. 34 (3–4): 183–207. doi:10.1353/ner.2014.0022. ISSN 2161-9131. S2CID 153474011. Retrieved 2016-06-02.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Eurozine - 1968 in Mowscow". Archived from the original on 2016-02-25. Retrieved 2021-02-19.
- ↑ See Bukovsky Archives, Section 3.1 "1960–1969", 4 September 1967, P 1393
- ↑ globalsecurity.org (27 April 2005). "Global Security, Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 19 January 2007.
- ↑ A Chronicle of Current Events, Issue 1, 30 April 1968 Archived 24 ga Maris, 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ Andrew, Christopher (2000). "The Mitrokhin archive". RUSI Journal. 145 (1): 52–56. doi:10.1080/03071840008446488. S2CID 143658109.
- ↑ A Chronicle of Current Events, Issue 64, 30 June 1982 Archived 28 ga Maris, 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "An appeal to the UN Commission on Human Rights", A Chronicle of Current Events, 8.10 (30 June 1969) Archived 23 ga Maris, 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "The trial of Tatyana Velikanova", A Chronicle of Current Events, 58.1 (November 1980) Archived 2019-03-24 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ See, for example, "Samizdat update" item 17, A Chronicle of Current Events, 24.12 (5 March 1972) Archived 24 ga Maris, 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "News in Brief", A Chronicle of Current Events, 29.11 (31 July 1973) pdf, p. 39 (78) Archived 23 ga Maris, 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "Samizdat update" item 1, A Chronicle of Current Events, 30.15 (December 1973) Archived 2019-03-23 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ Alexander Podrabinek, "An Unsavoury Story", 5 July 2013, Grani.ru.; translated and published by Rights in Russia (accessed 24 March 2019) Archived 2 Oktoba 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ A Chronicle of Current Events, issues 28-30 (December 1972 to December 1973), first circulated in 1974 Archived 2019-03-23 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ Horvath, Robert (2014). "Breaking the Totalitarian Ice: The Initiative Group for the Defense of Human Rights in the USSR". Human Rights Quarterly. 36 (1): 147–175. doi:10.1353/hrq.2014.0013. ISSN 1085-794X. S2CID 144147528.
- ↑ Bukovsky Archive, Letter from Yury Andropov to Leonid Brezhnev about Solzhenitsyn, 7 February 1974.
- ↑ "The Arrest of Alexander Ginzburg", A Chronicle of Current Events 44.2.2 (16 March 1977) Archived 24 ga Maris, 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "Делай то, что без тебя сделано не будет. Н.Д.Солженицына рассказывает об истории и сегодняшнем дне Солженицынского фонда". КИФА. 4 (19). 2004-04-28. Retrieved 2019-03-23. "'Do what will not get done without you': Natalya Solzhenitsyn describes the history and present-day activities of the Solzhenitsyn Fund", Kifa.ru online newspaper, 28 April 2004 (date of access 23 March 2019).
- ↑ "The Nobel Peace Prize 1975 - Presentation Speech". www.nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
- ↑ Acceptance Speech, Nobel Peace Prize, Oslo, Norway, December 10, 1975.
- ↑ Peace, Progress, Human Rights, Sakharov's Nobel Lecture, Nobel Peace Prize, Oslo, Norway, December 11, 1975.
- ↑ Pravda, Aug. 2, 1975, 2-6.
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