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'Yancin Dan Adam a Amurka

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'Yancin Dan Adam a Amurka
human rights by country or territory (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙasa Tarayyar Amurka

A cikin Amurka, haƙƙin ɗan adam ya ƙunshi jerin haƙƙoƙin da Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka ya kare su bisa doka (musamman Dokar 'Yancin), kundin tsarin mulki na jihohi, yarjejeniya da dokar al'ada ta duniya, dokokin da Majalisa da majalisun jihohi suka kafa, da raba gardama na jihohi da shirye-shiryen ɗan ƙasa. Gwamnatin Tarayya, ta hanyar kundin tsarin mulki da aka tabbatar, ta tabbatar da haƙƙoƙin da ba za a iya ba da su ba ga 'yan ƙasa da (har zuwa wani mataki) waɗanda ba' yan ƙasa ba. Wadannan hakkoki sun samo asali ne a tsawon lokaci ta hanyar gyare-gyaren kundin tsarin mulki, dokoki, da kuma shari'a. Tare da haƙƙoƙin kansu, ɓangaren mutanen da aka ba su waɗannan haƙƙoƙi ya faɗaɗa a tsawon lokaci. A cikin Amurka, kotunan tarayya suna da iko a kan Dokokin haƙƙin ɗan adam na duniya.

Amurka tana da matsayi mai girma [1] a kan haƙƙin ɗan adam ta ƙungiyoyi daban-daban.[2] Misali, Freedom in the World index ya lissafa Amurka ta 53 a duniya don haƙƙin farar hula da siyasa, tare da 83 daga cikin maki 100 har zuwa 2023; Press Freedom Index, wanda Reporters Without Borders suka buga, ya sanya Amurka ta 55 daga cikin ƙasashe 180 a 2024, [3] Democracy Index, wanda Sashin Lantarki na Tattalin Arziki ya buga, ya rarraba Amurka a matsayin "dimokuradiyya mara kyau".[4][./Human_rights_in_the_United_States#cite_note-RWBPFIndex-9 [5]] Duk da matsayi mai girma, batutuwan kare hakkin dan adam har yanzu suna tasowa.[5][6]

Tarihi

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A cikin shekara ta 1776, Thomas Jefferson ya gabatar da falsafar haƙƙin ɗan adam da ke cikin dukan mutane a cikin Sanarwar 'yancin kai, yana tabbatar da cewa "duk mutane an halicce su daidai, cewa Mahaliccin su ya ba su wasu haƙƙoƙin da ba za a iya raba su ba, waɗanda daga cikin waɗannan su ne Rayuwa, 'Yanci da neman Farin Ciki. "Maganar da aka fi ambaton haƙƙin ɗan Adam a tarihin da aka rubuta".[7]

Kungiyar kare hakkin dan adam ta farko a cikin mulkin mallaka goma sha uku na Burtaniya, wanda Anthony Benezet ya kafa a cikin shekara ta 1775. Bayan shekara guda, Sanarwar 'yancin kai ta sanar da cewa yankuna goma sha uku sun dauki kansu a matsayin jihohi masu zaman kansu, kuma ba sa cikin Daular Burtaniya. Sanarwar ta bayyana cewa "dukkanin mutane an halicce su daidai, cewa Mahaliccin su ya ba su wasu 'yanci marasa izini, daga cikin waɗannan akwai Rayuwa, 'Yanci da neman Farin Ciki", yana maimaita kalmar John Locke "rayuwa, 'yanci, da dukiya". [8] [9] Wannan ra'ayi na 'yancin ɗan adam, wanda ya samo asali ne daga Zamanin Haskakawa na Turai, ya nuna cewa ba a ba da haƙƙoƙi na asali ta hanyar allahntaka ko allahntaka ga sarakuna waɗanda ke ba da su ga batutuwa, amma allahntaka ne ko allahntakar da ke ba da ita ga kowane mutum (amma ba mace ba) kuma ba za a iya raba su da asali.[10]

Bayan yakin juyin juya hali, tsoffin yankuna goma sha uku sun shiga cikin matakin kafin gwamnati sama da shekaru goma, tare da muhawara mai yawa game da irin gwamnatin da za su samu.[11] Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka, wanda aka karɓa a shekara ta 1787 ta hanyar tabbatarwa a taron kasa da tarurruka a cikin yankuna, ya kirkiro jamhuriya wacce ta tabbatar da hakkoki da 'yanci da yawa. Koyaya, ba ta ba da haƙƙin jefa kuri'a a Amurka fiye da masu mallakar fararen maza ba (kimanin 6% na yawan jama'a). [12] Kundin Tsarin Mulki ya ambaci "Mutane", ba "Mutane" ba kamar yadda aka yi amfani da shi a cikin sanarwar 'yancin kai. Har ila yau, ya watsar da duk wani ambaton kalmomi kamar "Mahalicci" ko "Allah" da duk wani iko da aka samo ko ya yi imani da shi daga gare su, kuma ya ba da izinin "tabbatarwa" maimakon "sannu" idan an fi so. Kundin Tsarin Mulki ya tabbatar da hakkoki kuma ya ba da cewa sun kasance na dukkan mutane (watakila ma'anar maza da mata, kuma watakila yara, kodayake bambancin ci gaba tsakanin yara da manya ya haifar da matsaloli kuma ya kasance batun gyare-gyare na gaba, kamar yadda aka tattauna a ƙasa). Wasu daga cikin wannan ra'ayi na iya fitowa daga muhimmiyar ɓangaren Quaker na yawan jama'a a cikin yankuna, musamman a cikin kwarin Delaware, da ra'ayoyinsu na addini cewa duk mutane, ba tare da la'akari da jima'i ba, shekaru, tseren, ko wasu halaye, suna da haske na ciki iri ɗaya. Ra'ayoyin da aka samo daga Quaker da Quaker za su sanar da rubuce-rubuce da tabbatar da Kundin Tsarin Mulki, gami da tasirin kai tsaye na wasu daga cikin Masu tsara Kundin Tsarin Mulki, kamar su John Dickinson da Thomas Mifflin, waɗanda ko dai Quakers ne da kansu ko kuma sun fito ne daga yankunan da Quakers suka kafa ko kuma suka cika da su.[13]

Dickinson, Mifflin da sauran Framers waɗanda suka ki amincewa da bautar an jefa kuri'a a kan wannan tambaya, duk da haka, kuma Kundin Tsarin Mulki na asali ya ba da izinin bautar (ko da yake ba ta dogara da tseren ko wani hali na bawa ba) kuma, ta hanyar Yarjejeniyar Kashi Uku na Biyar, ta ƙidaya bayi (waɗanda ba a bayyana su da tseren ba) a matsayin kashi uku cikin biyar na Mutum don dalilai na rarraba haraji da wakilci a cikin Majalisar Wakilai (ko da kansu an nuna musu wariya a cikin jefa kuri'ar irin waɗannan wakilan).   Kamar yadda sabon Kundin Tsarin Mulki ya fara aiki, damuwa game da 'yanci na mutum da kuma mayar da hankali ga iko a matakin tarayya, ya haifar da gyare-gyaren Kundin Tsarin mulki ta hanyar amincewa da Dokar' Yanki, gyare- gyare-gine goma na farko ga Kundin Tsarin Tsarin Mulki. Koyaya, wannan ba shi da tasiri sosai a kan hukunce-hukuncen kotuna na shekaru 130 na farko bayan tabbatar da shi.

Kotuna da majalisun dokoki sun fara bambanta a cikin fassarar "Mutum", tare da wasu hukunce-hukuncen da ke taƙaita ma'anar "Mutum" don rufe mutane kawai da dukiya, maza kawai, ko fararen maza kawai. Misali, kodayake mata sun kasance suna jefa kuri'a a wasu jihohi, kamar New Jersey, tun lokacin da aka kafa Amurka, kuma kafin hakan a zamanin mulkin mallaka, wasu jihohi sun hana su jefa kuri'ar. A shekara ta 1756, Lydia Chapin Taft ta jefa kuri'a, ta jefa kuriʼa a taron majalisa na gari a madadin mijinta da ya mutu.[14][15] A shekara ta 1777, mata sun rasa damar yin amfani da kuri'unsu a New York; a shekara ta 1780, mata sun rasa ikon yin amfani da zabe a Massachusetts; kuma a shekara ta 1794, mata sun rasa 'yancin yin amfani da jefa kuri'un su a New Hampshire.[16]Daga 1775 har zuwa 1807, kundin tsarin mulki na jihar a New Jersey ya ba da izinin duk mutanen da suka kai sama da fam hamsin (kimanin $ 7,800 da aka gyara don hauhawar farashi, tare da dokokin zabe da ke nufin masu jefa kuri'a a matsayin "shi ko ita") don yin zabe; idan suna da wannan dukiya, maza baƙi masu zaman kansu da mata marasa aure ba, waɗanda ba za su iya samun 'yanci na mallakar fam hamsin ba (duk abin da suka mallaka ko suka samu na mazajensu ne ta hanyar Dokar Common of Coverture).[17] A cikin shekara ta 1790, an sake fasalin dokar don musamman hada mata, amma a cikin 1807, an sake fashe dokar don cire su, wani aiki wanda bai dace da kundin tsarin mulki ba tun lokacin da kundin tsarin mulkin jihar ya sanya duk wani irin wannan canji wanda ya dogara da zaɓen gaba ɗaya. Dubi 'yancin mata a Amurka. Ta hanyar koyarwar ɓoyewa, jihohi da yawa sun kuma hana mata masu aure damar mallakar dukiya a cikin sunayensu, kodayake yawancin sun ba da izinin mata marasa aure (gwafayu, saki ko kuma ba su taɓa yin aure ba) matsayin "Mutum" na maza, wani lokacin bisa ga manufar doka ta mace kadai.   A cikin shekaru, masu da'awar da yawa sun nemi tabbatar da cewa nuna bambanci ga mata a cikin jefa kuri'a, a cikin mallakar dukiya, a cikin lasisin sana'a, da sauran batutuwa ba bisa ka'ida ba ne saboda amfani da kalmar "Mutum" ta Kundin Tsarin Mulki, amma kotunan maza ba su ba da wannan sauraron adalci ba. Dubi, misali, Bradwell v. Illinois.

A cikin shekarun 1860, bayan shekaru da yawa na rikice-rikice game da ci gaba da yin bautar jihohin kudanci, da kuma haramta shi, an yi Yaƙin basasa, kuma bayan haka an yi wa Kundin Tsarin Mulki gyare-gyare don hana bautar da kuma hana jihohin ƙin haƙƙin da aka ba su a cikin Kundin Tsarin mulki. Daga cikin wadannan gyare-gyare akwai Kwaskwarima ta goma sha huɗu, wanda ya haɗa da Ma'anar Karewa daidai wanda ya bayyana cewa an haramta kotuna da jihohi wajen taƙaita ma'anar "Mutane". Bayan an karɓi Kwaskwarima ta goma sha huɗu ga Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka, Susan B. Anthony, wanda aka ƙarfafa ta hanyar harshe na kariya, ta jefa kuri'a. An gurfanar da ita saboda wannan, duk da haka, kuma ta shiga cikin hukuncin kotun maza cewa mata ba "Mutane" ba ne; kotun ta karɓi tarar amma ba a taɓa karɓar ta ba.  

Martin Luther King Jr. a 1963 Civil Rights March a Washington, DCYunkurin 'Yancin Bil'adama a Washington, DC

Shekaru hamsin bayan haka, a cikin 1920, an sake yin gyare-gyare ga Kundin Tsarin Mulki, tare da Kwaskwarimar goma sha tara don hana nuna bambanci ga mata.

A cikin shekarun 1970s, Kotun Burger ta yi jerin hukunce-hukunce da ke bayyana cewa nuna bambanci ga mata a matsayin mutane ya keta Kundin Tsarin Mulki kuma ya yarda cewa hukunce-hinku na kotu da suka gabata akasin haka sun kasance Sui generis da cin zarafin iko. Mafi yawan wadanda aka ambata daga cikin wadannan shine Reed v. Reed, wanda ya tabbatar da cewa duk wani nuna bambanci ga kowanne jima'i a cikin hakkoki da ke da alaƙa da matsayin Mutum dole ne ya cika ƙa'idar bincike mai tsauri.  

Shekaru na 1970 sun kuma ga karɓar Kwaskwarimar Kashi na ashirin da shida, wanda ya haramta nuna bambanci bisa ga shekaru, ga Mutanen da suka kai shekaru 18 da sama, a cikin jefa kuri'a. Sauran yunkurin magance bambancin ci gaba tsakanin yara da manya a matsayin Mutum da haƙƙoƙi an magance su galibi ta Kotun Koli, tare da Kotun ta amince a cikin 2012, a cikin Miller v. Alabama ƙa'idar siyasa da ta halitta cewa yara sun bambanta da manya.  

A shekara ta 1945, mambobin Ƙungiyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya sun kammala rubuce-rubucen rubutun kafa ta - Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkinobho: Amurka ta taka muhimmiyar rawa a wannan tsari.[18]

Kwamitin Bayyanawa na Duniya na 'Yancin Dan Adam ya kasance karkashin jagorancin tsohuwar Uwargidan Shugaban kasa Eleanor Roosevelt, wacce aka sani da kare hakkin dan adam. Hakazalika, ga gwamnatin Amurka da 'yan ƙasa, abubuwa da yawa sun kasance ba su da tabbas game da tasirin nan gaba, karfi, da kuma kaiwa ga haƙƙin ɗan adam na duniya. A ƙarshe Amurka ba ta riga ta haɓaka tsarin manufofi game da ko za ta amince da haƙƙin ɗan adam na duniya a cikin yanayin cikin gida ba. Tabbas an riga an sami wasu yunkurin siyasa na cikin gida, kamar misali Kwamitin Shugaba Truman kan 'Yancin Bil'adama, wanda ya rubuta rahoto a 1947 wanda ya fara yiwuwar amfani da sashin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya don yaki da nuna bambancin launin fata a Amurka. Yanzu da Amurka ta samu nasarar karɓar UDHR, a bayyane yake kamar haƙƙin ɗan adam zai taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin dokar cikin gida a cikin Amurka. Duk da haka akwai jayayya mai tsanani game da tambayar ko za a yi amfani da dokar kasa da kasa a kan tushen cikin gida. William H. Fitzpatrick ya lashe Kyautar Pulitzer don rubuce-rubucen edita a cikin 1951 don editocinsa wanda ya yi gargadi akai-akai game da haƙƙin ɗan adam na duniya da ke rushe babbar dokar ƙasar. Lalle ne, damuwar Fitzpatrick da kuma motsawa - da kuma na masu karatun sa - sun tsaya ga dogon lokaci, gwagwarmayar zamantakewa da siyasa da ta raba yawancin Amurka a lokacin, tare da tunawa cewa a cikin shekarun 1940 da 1950 rarrabuwar launin fata, warewar siyasa, da Rashin daidaito tsakanin jinsi sune ainihin gaskiyar rayuwar zamantakewar Amurka.[19]

Koyaya, a yau akwai damuwa kaɗan a Amurka game da tasirin da haƙƙin ɗan adam zai iya yi a kan dokar cikin gida. A cikin 'yan shekarun da suka gabata, gwamnatin Amurka sau da yawa ta tsaya kanta a matsayin mai goyon bayan haƙƙin ɗan adam a fagen duniya. Duk da haka, a ra'ayin gwamnati haƙƙin ɗan adam har yanzu na kasa da kasa ne maimakon abin da ke faruwa a cikin gida - wanda ke wakiltar ƙarin zaɓi fiye da wajibai.[19]

baya a yau sun shawo kan rashin daidaito daga fiye da rabin shekaru goma sha biyu da suka gabata, har yanzu Amurka ta saba wa sanarwar, saboda haka "kowane mutum yana da damar barin kowace ƙasa" saboda gwamnati na iya hana shigarwa da fita daga kowa daga Amurka don manufofin kasashen waje, tsaron kasa, ko dalilai na kiwon yara ta hanyar soke fasfofinsu. Har ila yau, Amurka ta saba wa Yarjejeniyar 'Yancin Dan Adam ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan' Yancin Yara wanda ke buƙatar iyaye biyu su kasance da dangantaka da yaron. Rashin jituwa tsakanin haƙƙin ɗan adam na yaro da na uwa ko uba wanda ke son barin ƙasar ba tare da biyan tallafin yaro ba ko yin aikin kula da yaro ga ɗansa ana iya ɗaukarsa a matsayin batun haƙƙin da ba daidai ba.

Tsarin shari'a

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Shafin asali na Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka

Tsarin kariya na cikin gida

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A cewar 'Yancin Dan Adam: The Essential Reference, " sanarwar 'yancin kai ta Amurka ita ce takardar jama'a ta farko da ta sadu da ma'anar' yancin ɗan adam ta zamani. " Kundin Tsarin Mulki ya amince da yawancin' yancin bil'adama da ba za a iya raba su ba, gami da' 'yancin magana, 'yancin taro, 'yanci na addini, 'yankin riƙewa da makamai, 'yan sanda daga mummunan hukunci mai ban mamaki, da' yanci ga Shari'a mai kyau ta juri.

An aiwatar da gyare-gyaren kundin tsarin mulki yayin da bukatun al'umma suka samo asali. Kwaskwarima ta tara da Kwaskwarima ta goma sha huɗu sun fahimci cewa ba duk haƙƙin ɗan adam ba ne aka lissafa su a cikin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka na asali. Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta 1964 da Dokar Amurkawa tare da Naƙasasshe ta 1990 misalai ne na' yancin ɗan adam waɗanda Majalisa ta ƙidaya bayan rubuce-rubucen Kundin Tsarin Mulki. Matsayin kariya ta shari'a ga haƙƙin ɗan adam da gwamnatin Amurka ta bayar an bayyana ta hanyar shari'a, musamman ta hanyar Kotun Koli ta Amurka.

A cikin gwamnatin tarayya, ana gudanar da muhawara game da abin da zai iya ko ba zai iya zama haƙƙin ɗan adam mai tasowa ba a cikin forums guda biyu: Majalisar Dattijai ta Amurka, wanda zai iya lissafa waɗannan; da Kotun Koli, wanda zai yiwu a bayyana haƙƙin da doka ba ta bayyana ba. Bugu da ƙari, jihohi daban-daban, ta hanyar shari'ar kotu ko doka, sau da yawa sun kare haƙƙin ɗan adam ba a san su a matakin tarayya ba. Misali, Massachusetts ita ce ta farko daga cikin jihohi da yawa da suka amince da auren jinsi ɗaya.

Tasirin yarjejeniyar kasa da kasa

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A cikin mahallin haƙƙin ɗan adam da yarjejeniyoyin da suka amince ko ƙirƙirar haƙƙin mutum, dokar kundin tsarin mulki ta Amurka ta nuna bambanci tsakanin yarjejeniyoyin da ba su aiwatar da kansu ba. Yarjejeniyar da ba ta aiwatar da kanta ba, wacce ke ba da haƙƙoƙin da doka za ta iya ba da su a ƙarƙashin kundin tsarin mulki, tana buƙatar matakin majalisa don aiwatar da kwangilar (yarjejeniya) kafin ta zama wani ɓangare na dokar cikin gida.[20] Har ila yau, akwai shari'o'in da ke buƙatar amincewar majalisa bisa ga Kundin Tsarin Mulki, kamar shari'oʼin da za su iya sa Amurka ta ayyana yaƙi ko kudade masu dacewa.

Yarjejeniyoyi game da haƙƙin ɗan adam, waɗanda ke haifar da aikin guje wa yin aiki a wata hanya ko ba da takamaiman haƙƙoƙi, galibi ana ɗaukar su don aiwatar da kansu, ba sa buƙatar ƙarin aikin doka. A lokuta inda majalisun dokoki suka ki amincewa da yarjejeniyar da ke aiwatar da kansu ta hanyar bayyana su a matsayin wadanda ba su aiwatar da kansu ba a cikin wani aiki na rashin amincewa da majalisa, masana na kundin tsarin mulki suna jayayya cewa irin waɗannan ayyukan sun keta rabuwa da iko - a lokuta na rikici, bangaren shari'a, ba Majalisa ba, suna da iko a karkashin Mataki na III don amfani da dokar yarjejeniya ga shari'o'o'i a gaban kotu. Wannan muhimmin tanadi ne a lokuta inda Majalisa ta ayyana yarjejeniyar kare hakkin dan adam ba ta aiwatar da kanta ba, alal misali, ta hanyar jayayya da cewa ba ta ƙara wani abu ga kare hakkin dan Adam a karkashin dokar cikin gida ta Amurka. Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan 'Yancin Bil'adama da Siyasa tana daya daga cikin irin wannan shari'ar, wanda, yayin da aka tabbatar da shi bayan fiye da shekaru ashirin na rashin aiki, an yi hakan tare da ajiya, fahimta, da sanarwa.

A karkashin ka'idar pacta sunt servanda, ƙasa ba za ta iya kiran tanadin dokokin cikin gida ko kundin tsarin mulki a matsayin hujja don gazawar bin wajibai na dokar kasa da kasa ba. Sabili da haka, idan Amurka ta tabbatar da yarjejeniyar kare hakkin dan adam amma ba a dauke ta da aiwatar da kanta ba, ko kuma ba a aiwatar da ita ta hanyar doka ba, duk da haka tana da nasaba da gwamnatin Amurka a matsayin batun dokar kasa da kasa.

Daidaitawa

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Ra'ayi na launin fata

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Lyndon B. Johnson ya sanya hannu kan Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta 1964. Daga cikin baƙi a bayansa shine Martin Luther King Jr.

Ma'anar Karewa ta Daidaitawa ta Kwaskwarima ta goma sha huɗu ga Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka ta tabbatar da cewa "Duk mutanen da aka haifa ko kuma sun zama 'yan ƙasa a Amurka ... 'yan ƙasa ne na Amurka da na Jihar da suke zaune. Babu Jiha da za ta ... hana kowane mutum a cikin ikonta kariya ta daidaito na dokoki" [21] Bugu da ƙari, Kwaskwarimar Kwaskwarmaya ta goma sha biyar ga Kundin Kundin Tsarin Tsarin Mulki na United States ta haramta ƙin' yancin yin zabe bisa ga wannan ɗan ƙasa "tseren, launi, ko yanayin bautar da ya gabata".

Amurka ta kafa cikakkiyar doka da ta hana nuna bambanci bisa kabilanci da asalin ƙasa a wurin aiki a cikin Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta 1964 (CRA). CRA ita ce watakila mafi kyawun dokar kare hakkin bil'adama da aka kafa a zamanin yau, ta zama abin koyi ga dokokin adawa da nuna bambanci na gaba kuma ta fadada kariya ta kare hakkin bil-adama a wurare daban-daban. Shirin na 1991 ya haifar da mafita ga wadanda ke fama da irin wannan nuna bambanci don lalacewar azabtarwa da cikakken biyan kuɗi. Baya ga taimakon farar hula, Amurka tana da hukumomin tilasta bin doka da oda na gwamnati, kamar su Hukumar Daidaitaccen Aiki.

Da farko a shekarar 1965, Amurka ta fara shirin tabbatar da aiki wanda ba wai kawai ya tilasta wa ma'aikata kada su nuna bambanci ba, amma yana buƙatar su samar da fifiko ga kungiyoyin da aka kare a karkashin Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama don kara yawan su inda aka yanke musu hukunci ba su da wakilci. Ana amfani da irin waɗannan shirye-shiryen aiki na tabbatarwa a cikin shigar kwaleji.

Har ila yau, Amurka ta haramta tilasta duk wani "... cancantar jefa kuri'a ko abin da ake buƙata don jefa kuri'u, ko misali, aiki, ko hanya ... don ƙin ko rage haƙƙin kowane ɗan ƙasar Amurka na jefa kuri'aa saboda launin fata ko launi, "wanda ke hana amfani da sassan kakanni, Gwaje-gwaje na karatu da rubutu, haraji da fararen firamare. 

Abolitionist Anthony Benezet da sauransu sun kafa Pennsylvania Abolition Society . An yi amfani da wannan hoton a matsayin alama don dalilin su.

Kafin wucewar Kwaskwarima ta goma sha uku ga Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka, Bautar ta kasance doka a wasu jihohin Amurka har zuwa 1865. [22] Da yake rinjayar ka'idodin Religious Society of Friends, Anthony Benezet ya kafa Pennsylvania Abolition Society a cikin 1775, yana gaskata cewa duk kabilun an dauke su daidai kuma bautar ɗan adam ba ta dace da imanin Kirista ba. Benezet ya ba da amincewa da haƙƙin ɗan adam ga 'Yan asalin ƙasar Amirka kuma ya yi jayayya don mafita ta zaman lafiya ga tashin hankali tsakanin' yan asalin ƙasar Amirka da na Turai. Benjamin Franklin ya zama shugaban kungiyar Benezet a ƙarshen karni na 18. Bugu da kari, an fassara Kwaskwarimar ta goma sha huɗu don ba da izinin abin da ake kira Rabuwa amma daidai ga 'yan tsiraru har sai Kotun Koli ta Amurka ta soke wannan fassarar a shekara ta 1954, wanda hakan ya soke Dokokin Jim Crow. 'Yan asalin ƙasar Amirka ba su da' yancin zama ɗan ƙasa har sai Dokar Dawes ta 1887 da Dokar' yan asalin Indiya ta 1924.

Bayan zaben shugaban kasa na shekara ta 2008, an rantsar da Barack Obama a matsayin shugaban Afirka na farko na Amurka a ranar 20 ga Janairu, 2009. [23] A cikin jawabinsa na Inaugural, Shugaba Obama ya bayyana cewa "Mutumin da mahaifinsa bai kai shekaru 60 da suka gabata ba zai iya tsayawa a gabanka don yin rantsuwa mafi tsarki ... Don haka bari mu yi wannan rana tare da tunawa, game da ko wanene mu da kuma yadda muka yi tafiya".[23]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "United States" (in Turanci). Freedom House. Archived from the original on January 27, 2018. Retrieved 2018-02-17.
  2. ↑ "World: Human Rights Risk Index 2014". ReliefWeb. December 4, 2013.
  3. ↑ Gorokhovskaia, Yana; Shahbaz, Adrian; Slipowitz, Amy (9 March 2023). "Marking 50 Years in the Struggle for Democracy". Freedom House. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  4. ↑ "Democracy Index 2021: the China challenge". Economist Intelligence Unit (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 2022-02-10. Retrieved 2022-08-19.
  5. ↑ "United States". Human Rights Watch. 2020.
  6. ↑ Alston, Philp (December 15, 2017). "Statement on Visit to the USA, by Professor Philip Alston, United Nations Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights". OHCHR. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
  7. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  8. ↑ Declaration of Independence
  9. ↑ "Locke and Happiness". pursuit-of-happiness.org (in Turanci). Retrieved 2018-09-06.
  10. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  11. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  12. ↑ "Expansion of Rights and Liberties - The Right of Suffrage". Online Exhibit: The Charters of Freedom. National Archives. Archived from the original on July 6, 2016. Retrieved April 21, 2015.
  13. ↑ See, e.g.,Empty citation (help)
  14. ↑ Masiello, Carol. "Uxbridge Breaks Tradition and Makes History: Lydia Chapin Taft". Blackstone Daily. Archived from the original on November 1, 2006. Retrieved June 29, 2011.CS1 maint: unfit url (link)
  15. ↑ "Women in Politics: A Timeline". International Women's Democracy Center. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved January 3, 2012.
  16. ↑ "The Liz Library Presents: The Woman Suffrage Timeline". Thelizlibrary.org. August 26, 1920. Retrieved June 29, 2011.
  17. ↑ "Women in the Early Republic". Archived from the original on July 12, 2007.
  18. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Christopher N. J. Roberts. "William H. Fitzpatrick's Editorials on Human Rights (1949)". Quellen zur Geschichte der Menschenrechte. Retrieved November 4, 2017.
  20. ↑ Foster v. Neilson, 27 U.S. 253, 314-15 (1829) U.S. Supreme Court, Chief Justice Marshall writing: "Our constitution declares a treaty to be the law of the land. It is, consequently, to be regarded in courts of justice as equivalent to an act of the legislature, whenever it operates of itself without the aid of any legislative provision. But when the terms of the stipulation import a contract, when either of the parties engages to perform a particular act, the treaty addresses itself to the political, not the judicial department, and the legislature must execute the contract before it can become a rule for the Court." at 314, cited in Martin International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law et al.
  21. ↑ McWhirter, Darien A.m Equal Protection, Oryx Press, 1995, page 1
  22. ↑ Vorenberg, Michael, Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment, Cambridge University Press, 2001, page 1
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Barack Obama Becomes 44th President of the United States". America.gov. Archived from the original on May 21, 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2009.
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