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Dokar 'yancin dan adam ta kasa da kasa

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international human rights law
academic discipline (en) Fassara
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Dokar haƙƙin ɗan adam ta duniya (IHRL) ita ce tsarin doka ta ƙasa da ƙasa wanda aka tsara don inganta haƙƙin ɗanɗano a matakin zamantakewa, yanki, da na cikin gida. A matsayin wani nau'i na dokar ƙasa da ƙasa, dokar kare haƙƙin ɗan adam ta ƙasa da ƙasa ta kunshi Yarjejeniyoyi, yarjejeniyoyi tsakanin ƙasashe masu zaman kansu da aka nufa don samun tasirin doka tsakanin bangarorin da suka amince da su; da kuma dokar kasa da ta al'ada. Sauran kayan aikin kare hakkin dan adam na kasa da kasa, yayin da ba su da doka, suna ba da gudummawa ga aiwatarwa, fahimta da ci gaban dokar kare haƙƙin ɗan Adam ta kasa da kasa kuma an san su a matsayin tushen wajibai na siyasa.[1]

Dokar kare hakkin dan adam ta kasa da kasa, wacce ke jagorantar halin da wata jiha ke yi wa mutanenta a lokacin zaman lafiya ana ganinta a matsayin mai banbanci daga Dokar jin kai ta kasa da kasa wacce ke jagora da halin da wata Jiha ke yi a lokacin rikici, kodayake rassan biyu na doka suna da alaƙa kuma a wasu hanyoyi sun haɗu.[2][3][4]

Wani hangen nesa ya bayyana cewa dokar jin kai ta kasa da kasa tana wakiltar aikin dokar kare hakkin dan adam ta kasa da Kasa; ya haɗa da ka'idojin gabaɗaya waɗanda ke aiki ga kowa a kowane lokaci da ka'idodin musamman waɗanda ke aiki da wasu yanayi kamar rikici tsakanin jihohi da aikin soja (watau IHL) ko wasu kungiyoyin mutane ciki har da 'yan gudun hijira (misali Yarjejeniyar 'Yancin Yara ta 1951), da fursunonin yaki (Yar Geneva ta Uku ta 1949).

Tsarin Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Babban Taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya amince da Sanarwar Vienna da Shirin Aiki a cikin 1993, wanda aka kafa Babban Kwamishinan Majalisar Dinkinobho na 'Yancin Dan Adam.

Ranar 'Yancin Dan Adam ta Duniya ta 2018 (45346105045)

A shekara ta 2006, an maye gurbin Hukumar Kare Haƙƙin ɗan Adam ta Majalisar ɗinkin Duniya da Majalisar Kare Haƙƙin dan Adam ta Majalisar don aiwatar da dokar kare haƙƙin ɗan adam ta duniya. Canje-canjen sun yi annabci game da ƙungiyar da aka tsara tare da buƙatar sake duba shari'o'in haƙƙin ɗan adam kowane shekaru huɗu. Manufar Ci Gaban Ci Gaban Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta 10 ta kuma yi niyya da inganta dokoki da manufofi don rage rashin daidaito.[5]

Sanarwar 'Yancin Dan Adam ta Duniya[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR

Sanarwar Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) wata sanarwa ce ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya wacce ba ta haifar da dokar kare hakkin dan adam ta duniya ba. Yawancin malaman shari'a sun ambaci UDHR a matsayin shaida ta al'ada ta kasa da kasa.

Fiye da haka, UDHR ta zama mai ba da izini ga haƙƙin ɗan adam. Ya samar da tushe ga kayan aikin kare hakkin dan adam na kasa da kasa waɗanda suka samar da dokar kare hakkin dan Adam ta kasa da kasa.

Yarjejeniyar 'yancin Dan Adam ta Duniya[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Baya ga karɓar a cikin 1966 na Alkawari biyu masu yawa waɗanda suka zama wani ɓangare na Dokar 'Yancin Dan Adam ta Duniya (watau Alkawari na Duniya kan' Yancin Bil'adama da Siyasa da Alkawari ta Duniya kan' yancin Tattalin Arziki, Jama'a da Al'adu), an karɓi wasu yarjejeniyoyi a matakin duniya. Wadannan an san su da Kayan aikin kare hakkin dan adam. Wasu daga cikin mafi mahimmanci sun hada da:

Kare yanki da cibiyoyi[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsarin yanki na dokar kare hakkin dan adam ta kasa da kasa ya kara da kuma karawa dokar kare hakkin bil'adama ta kasa da ta kasa ta hanyar karewa da inganta haƙƙin dan adam a takamaiman yankuna na duniya. Akwai mahimman kayan aikin haƙƙin ɗan adam guda uku waɗanda suka kafa dokar haƙƙin ɗanɗano a kan yanki:

Amurka da Turai[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  • Yarjejeniyar Jama'a ta Turai ta 1961, tana aiki tun 1965 (wanda tsarin korafe-korafe, wanda aka kirkira a 1995 a karkashin Additional Protocol, yana aiki tun 1998); da
  • Yarjejeniyar San Salvador ga ACHR don Amurka ta 1988, tana aiki tun 1999.

Afirka[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kungiyar Tarayyar Afirka (AU) ƙungiya ce ta ƙasashe 55 na Afirka.[6] An kafa shi a shekara ta 2001, manufar AU ita ce taimakawa wajen tabbatar da dimokuradiyya ta Afirka, haƙƙin ɗan adam, da tattalin arziki mai ɗorewa, musamman ta hanyar kawo ƙarshen rikice-rikicen Afirka da ƙirƙirar kasuwa mai tasiri da ƙwarewa.[7]

Yarjejeniyar kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a ita ce babbar kayan aikin kare hakkin dan adam na yankin, wanda ya fito ne a karkashin jagorancin Kungiyar hadin kan Afirka (OAU) (tun lokacin da aka maye gurbin ta da Kungiyar Afirka). An sanar da niyyar tsara Yarjejeniyar Afirka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a a shekarar 1979. An amince da Yarjejeniyar gaba ɗaya a taron OAU na 1981.

Dangane da Mataki na 63 (wanda ya sa ya "yi aiki watanni uku bayan karɓar da Sakatare Janar ya yi na kayan tabbatarwa ko bin mafi rinjaye" na kasashe membobin OAU), Yarjejeniyar Afirka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a ta fara aiki a ranar 21 ga Oktoba 1986, don girmamawa da aka ayyana ranar 21 ga October. [8]

Hukumar Afirka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a (ACHPR) kungiya ce ta shari'a ta Tarayyar Afirka, wacce ke da alhakin ingantawa da kare' yancin dan adam da haƙƙin jama'a a duk faɗin nahiyar Afirka, da kuma fassara Yarjejeniyar Afirka kan' yancin Dan Adam, da kuma la'akari da korafe-korafe na mutum game da keta Yarjejeniyar. Hukumar tana da manyan fannoni uku na alhakin: [9]

  1. inganta haƙƙin ɗan adam da na mutane;
  2. kare hakkin dan adam da na mutane; da kuma
  3. fassara Yarjejeniyar Afirka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a.

A cikin bin waɗannan manufofi, an ba da izinin hukumar ta "tattara takardu, gudanar da karatu da bincike kan matsalolin Afirka a fannin haƙƙin ɗan adam da na mutane, shirya tarurruka, tarurruka da tarurruka، yada bayanai, ƙarfafa cibiyoyin ƙasa da na gida da suka shafi haƙƙin ɗan'uwa da na mutane kuma, idan lamarin ya taso, ya ba da ra'ayoyinsa ko ya ba da shawarwari ga gwamnatoci.[9][10]

Tare da kirkirar Kotun Afirka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a (a karkashin wata yarjejeniya ga Yarjejeniyar da aka karɓa a 1998 kuma ta fara aiki a watan Janairun 2004), hukumar za ta sami ƙarin aiki na shirya shari'o'i don gabatar da su ga ikon Kotun.[11] A cikin yanke shawara na watan Yulin 2004, Majalisar AU ta yanke shawarar cewa Kotun nan gaba kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a za a haɗa ta da Kotun Shari'a ta Afirka.

Kotun Shari'a ta Tarayyar Afirka an yi niyyar zama "babban bangaren shari'a na Tarayyar". [12] [13] Kodayake har yanzu ba a kafa shi ba, an yi niyyar karɓar ayyukan Hukumar Afirka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a, da kuma aiki a matsayin babbar kotun Tarayyar Afirka, fassara duk dokokin da yarjejeniyoyi masu mahimmanci. Yarjejeniyar da ta kafa Kotun Afirka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Jama'a ta fara aiki a watan Janairun shekara ta 2004, amma hadewarta da Kotun Shari'a ta jinkirta kafa ta.[14] Yarjejeniyar da ta kafa Kotun Shari'a za ta fara aiki lokacin da kasashe goma sha biyar suka tabbatar da ita.[15]

Akwai kasashe da yawa a Afirka da ake zargi da keta haƙƙin ɗan adam da al'ummomin duniya da kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu suka yi.[16]

Tsarin Amurkawa[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kungiyar Amurka (OAS) kungiya ce ta kasa da kasa da ke da hedikwata a Washington, DC . Mambobin sa sune kasashe masu zaman kansu talatin da biyar na Amurka.

A cikin shekarun 1990s, tare da kawo karshen yakin cacar baka, da komawar mulkin dimokuradiyya a Latin Amurka, da kuma burin dunkulewar duniya, kungiyar OAS ta yi kokarin sake farfado da kanta domin dacewa da sabon yanayin.  Abubuwan da aka bayyana a yanzu sun haɗa da masu zuwa:[17]

  • karfafa dimokuradiyya;
  • aiki don zaman lafiya;
  • kare haƙƙin ɗan adam;
  • yaki da cin hanci da rashawa;
  • haƙƙin 'yan asalin ƙasar; da
  • inganta ci gaba mai ɗorewa.

Hukumar Inter-American kan 'Yancin Dan Adam (IACHR) kungiya ce mai cin gashin kanta ta Kungiyar Amurka, kuma tana zaune a Washington, DC. Tare da Kotun Inter-American na'Yancin Dan adam, da ke zaune a San Jose, Costa Rica, tana ɗaya daga cikin hukumomin da suka ƙunshi tsarin Amurka don ingantawa da kare haƙƙin ɗan adam. [18] IACHR kungiya ce ta dindindin wacce ke haɗuwa a zaman yau da kullun da na musamman sau da yawa a shekara don bincika zarge-zargen keta haƙƙin ɗan adam a cikin yankin. Ayyukanta na haƙƙin ɗan adam sun samo asali ne daga takardu uku: [19]

  1. Yarjejeniyar OAS;
  2. Sanarwar Amurka game da 'Yancin da Ayyukan Mutum; da kuma
  3. Yarjejeniyar Amurka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam .

An kafa Kotun Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta Amurka a cikin 1979 tare da manufar tilasta da fassara tanadin Yarjejeniyar Amurka kan 'Yancin Dan Adam. Saboda haka manyan ayyukanta guda biyu sune yanke hukunci da ba da shawara:

  • A karkashin tsohon, yana sauraro da dokoki game da takamaiman shari'o'in keta haƙƙin ɗan adam da aka ambata.
  • A karkashin wannan na ƙarshe, yana ba da ra'ayoyi game da batutuwan fassarar shari'a da wasu hukumomin OAS ko jihohin membobin suka kawo.[20]

Kasashe da yawa a Amurka, ciki har da Colombia, Cuba, Mexico da Venezuela, [21] an zarge su da keta haƙƙin ɗan adam.

Tsarin Turai[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Majalisar Turai, wacce aka kafa a 1949, ita ce kungiyar da ta fi tsufa da ke aiki don hadin kan Turai. Kungiyar kasa da kasa ce tare da halayyar shari'a da aka amince da ita a karkashin dokar kasa da kasa, kuma tana da matsayin mai lura a Majalisar Dinkin Duniya. Cibiyar majalisar tana cikin Strasbourg a Faransa.

Majalisar Turai tana da alhakin Yarjejeniyar Turai kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Kotun 'Yancin Dan Adam ta Turai.[22] Wadannan cibiyoyin suna ɗaure membobin majalisa zuwa tsarin haƙƙin ɗan adam wanda, kodayake yana da tsauri, ya fi na Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan haƙƙin ɗanɗano.

Har ila yau, majalisar tana inganta Yarjejeniyar Turai don Harsunan Yankin ko Ƙananan Hukumomi da Yarjejeniyar Jama'a ta Turai.[23] Kasancewa memba yana buɗewa ga duk jihohin Turai waɗanda ke neman Haɗin kai na Turai, karɓar ƙa'idar mulkin doka, kuma suna iyawa kuma suna shirye su tabbatar da dimokuradiyya, haƙƙin ɗan adam na asali da 'yanci.[24]

Majalisar Turai ta rabu da Tarayyar Turai, amma ana sa ran ƙarshen zai shiga Yarjejeniyar Turai kan 'Yancin Dan Adam. Majalisar ta hada da dukkan kasashe mambobin Tarayyar Turai. Har ila yau, Tarayyar Turai tana da takardar kare hakkin dan adam daban, Yarjejeniyar Hakki na Tarayyar Tarayyar Duniya.[25]

Yarjejeniyar Turai kan 'Yancin Dan Adam tun daga 1950 ta bayyana kuma ta tabbatar da' yancin dan adam da' yanci na asali a Turai.[26] Dukkanin kasashe 47 na Majalisar Turai sun sanya hannu kan wannan yarjejeniya, sabili da haka suna ƙarƙashin ikon Kotun Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta Turai a Strasbourg.[26] Don hana azabtarwa da rashin mutunci ko rashin kulawa, an kafa Kwamitin Rigakafin azabtarwa.[27][28][29]

Majalisar Turai ta kuma amince da Yarjejeniyar kan Ayyuka game da Cinikin Dan Adam a watan Mayu na shekara ta 2005, don kariya daga fataucin mutane da cin zarafin jima'i, Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Turai kan Kare Yara daga Cin zarafin Jima'i da Cin zarafin jimaʼi a watan Oktoba na shekara ta 2007, da Yarjejeniya kan hanawa da yaki da tashin hankali kan mata da tashin hankali a cikin gida a watan Mayu 2011.

Kotun Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta Turai ita ce kawai kotun kasa da kasa da ke da iko don magance shari'o'in da mutane suka kawo maimakon jihohi.[26] A farkon shekara ta 2010, kotun tana da shari'o'i sama da 120,000 da jerin masu jira na shekaru da yawa.[30][31][32] Kimanin daya daga cikin shari'o'i ashirin da aka gabatar a kotun an dauke shi da izini.[33] A shekara ta 2007, kotun ta ba da hukunce-hukunce 1,503. A halin yanzu, zai ɗauki shekaru 46 don sakewa.[34]

Kulawa, aiwatarwa da tilasta[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A halin yanzu babu kotun kasa da kasa da za ta gudanar da dokar kare hakkin dan adam ta kasa da kasa, amma kusan hukumomin shari'a sun wanzu a karkashin wasu yarjejeniyoyin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (kamar Kwamitin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam a karkashin ICCPR). Kotun hukunta manyan laifuka ta kasa da kasa (ICC) tana da iko kan laifin kisan kare dangi, Laifukan yaki da Laifukan da aka yi wa bil'adama.[35] Kotun Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta Turai da Kotun Kare Kare Hakkin dan Adam ta Amurka suna aiwatar da dokar kare hakkin dan adam ta yanki.

Kodayake waɗannan ƙungiyoyin ƙasa da ƙasa suna da iko a kan shari'o'i game da dokar jin kai ta duniya, yana da mahimmanci a gane, kamar yadda aka tattauna a sama, cewa tsarin biyu sun zama tsarin shari'a daban-daban.[36]

Kungiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya suna da wasu hanyoyin tilasta bin doka. Wadannan sun hada da hukumomin yarjejeniya da ke haɗe da yarjejeniyoyi bakwai da ke aiki a halin yanzu, da kuma hanyoyin da Majalisar Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ke yin korafi, tare da Binciken Lokaci na Duniya da Mai ba da rahoto na Musamman na Majalisar Dinkinobho (wanda aka sani da 1235 da 1503 bi da bi). [37]

Tilasta aiwatar da dokar kare hakkin dan adam ta kasa da kasa alhakin jihar ne; babban alhakin Jiha ne ya sanya haƙƙin ɗan adam na 'yan ƙasa ya zama gaskiya.

A aikace, yawancin haƙƙin ɗan adam suna da wuyar tilasta su bisa doka, saboda rashin yarjejeniya game da aikace-aikacen wasu haƙƙoƙi, rashin dokokin ƙasa masu dacewa ko ƙungiyoyi da aka ba su ikon ɗaukar matakin shari'a don tilasta su.[38]

A cikin kasashe sama da 110, an kafa Cibiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam na kasa (NHRIs) don karewa, ingantawa ko saka idanu kan haƙƙin ɗan adam tare da iko a cikin wata ƙasa. Kodayake ba duk NHRIs ba ne suka dace da ka'idodin Paris, [39] yawan da tasirin waɗannan cibiyoyin suna ƙaruwa.

An bayyana Ka'idodin Paris a taron farko na kasa da kasa kan Cibiyoyin Kasa don Ingantawa da Kare Hakkin Dan Adam a Paris daga 7 zuwa 9 ga Oktoba 1991, kuma Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta karɓa ta 1992/54 na 1992 da Babban Taron 48/134 na 1993. Ka'idodin Paris sun lissafa nauyin da yawa ga NHRIs.

Ikon duniya[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ikon duniya ka'ida ce mai rikitarwa a cikin dokar kasa da kasa, inda jihohi ke da'awar ikon aikata laifuka a kan mutanen da ake zargi da aikata laifukan da aka aikata a waje da iyakokin jihar mai gabatar da kara, ba tare da la'akari da ƙasa ba, ƙasar zama ko duk wata dangantaka da ƙasar da ke gabatar da kara. Jiha ta goyi bayan da'awarta a kan dalilin cewa laifin da aka aikata an dauke shi laifi ne a kan kowa, wanda kowane jiha ke da izinin azabtarwa.[40] Saboda haka manufar ikon duniya tana da alaƙa da ra'ayin cewa wasu ka'idojin kasa da kasa sune erga Eromnes, ko kuma suna da alaƙa ga dukan al'ummar duniya, da kuma manufar jus cogens.

A shekara ta 1993, Belgium ta zartar da "dokar ikon duniya" don ba kotun ta ikon kan laifukan da aka yi wa bil'adama a wasu ƙasashe. A shekara ta 1998, an kama Augusto Pinochet a Landan biyo bayan tuhumar da alƙalin Mutanen Espanya Baltasar Garzón ya yi a karkashin ka'idar shari'a ta duniya.[41] Adolf Eichmann wanda shine tsohon kwamandan Nazi SS wanda ake zargi da kula da canja wurin Yahudawa zuwa sansanonin Holocaust kuma an tsananta masa a Isra'ila a 1961. Adolf yana zaune a Argentina bayan yakin.[42]Amnesty International da sauran Kungiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam ne ke tallafawa ka'idar, wadanda suka yi imanin cewa wasu laifuka suna haifar da barazana ga al'ummar duniya gaba daya, kuma al'umma tana da aikin ɗabi'a don yin aiki.

Sauran, kamar Henry Kissinger, [43] suna jayayya cewa "yaduwar yarjejeniya cewa dole ne a gurfanar da keta haƙƙin ɗan adam da laifuka a kan bil'adama ya hana yin la'akari da rawar da kotuna na duniya ke takawa. [44] Ikon duniya yana da haɗarin haifar da zalunci na duniya - na alƙalai. "

Duba kuma[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Haɗin waje[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Manazarta[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  1. ↑ Human rights, A very short introduction replace this with a better reference later
  2. ↑ "What is the difference between IHL and human rights law?" (in Turanci). ICRC. 22 January 2015. Archived from the original on Nov 21, 2023.
  3. ↑ "IHL and human rights law" (in Turanci). ICRC. 29 October 2010. Archived from the original on Feb 14, 2024.
  4. ↑ Koskenniemi, Martti (September 2002). "Fragmentation of International Law? Postmodern Anxieties". Leiden Journal of International Law. 15 (3): 553–579. doi:10.1017/S0922156502000262. S2CID 146783448.
  5. ↑ "Goal 10 targets". UNDP (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 2020-09-23.
  6. ↑ "AU Member States". African Union. Archived from the original on 5 January 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  7. ↑ "AU in a Nutshell". Archived from the original on 30 December 2007. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  8. ↑ African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Mandate of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights". Archived from the original on 20 January 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  10. ↑ Art. 45.
  11. ↑ "Protocol to the African Charter on human and peoples' rights on the establishment of an African court on human and peoples' rights". Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  12. ↑ Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union, Article 2.2.
  13. ↑ "Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union" (PDF). African Union. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
  14. ↑ "Open Letter to the Chairman of the African Union (AU) seeking clarifications and assurances that the Establishment of an effective African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights will not be delayed or undermined" (PDF). Amnesty International. 5 August 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
  15. ↑ "African Court of Justice". African International Courts and Tribunals. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  16. ↑ "Human Rights Watch Africa". Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  17. ↑ "OAS Key Issues". Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  18. ↑ "Directory of OAS Authorities". Organization of American States. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  19. ↑ "What is the IACHR?". Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  20. ↑ "Inter-American Court on Human Rights homepage". Inter-American Court on Human Rights. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  21. ↑ "Human rights in Venezuela". Amnesty International (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-07-03.
  22. ↑ "Gender and reproductive rights home page". Who.int. Archived from the original on 21 December 2002. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  23. ↑ "Social Charter". Council of Europe. Retrieved 4 January 2008.
  24. ↑ "The Council of Europe in Brief". Archived from the original on 9 January 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2008.
  25. ↑ Juncker, Jean-Claude (11 April 2006). "Council of Europe – European Union: "A sole ambition for the European Continent"" (PDF). Council of Europe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 4 January 2008.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 "Historical Background to the European Court of Human Rights". European Court of Human Rights. Archived from the original on 22 December 2007. Retrieved 4 January 2008.
  27. ↑ Article 3 of the Convention.
  28. ↑ European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
  29. ↑ "About the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture". European Committee for the Prevention of Torture. Retrieved 4 January 2008.
  30. ↑ "Virginia Law". Law.virginia.edu. 24 March 2008. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  31. ↑ BBC article
  32. ↑ "Swiss info article". Swissinfo.ch. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  33. ↑ "The Guardian". TheGuardian.com. 16 July 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  34. ↑ "Breaking news, Ireland". Breakingnews.ie. 23 January 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  35. ↑ "How the Court works". www.icc-cpi.int (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 15 October 2016. Retrieved 2021-09-17.
  36. ↑ The Program for Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research, "Brief Primer on IHL"
  37. ↑ OHCHR. "Human Rights Council Complaint Procedure". Archived from the original on 8 March 2009. Retrieved 6 February 2009.
  38. ↑ See, REDRESS, Enforcement of Awards for Victims of Torture and Other International Crimes May, 2006
  39. ↑ "Chart of the Status of National Institutions" (PDF). National Human Rights Institutions Forum. November 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2008. ACCREDITED BY THE INTERNATIONAL COORDINATING COMMITTEE OF NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS FOR THE PROMOTION AND PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
    In accordance with the Paris Principles and the ICC Sub-Committee Rules of Procedure, the following classifications for accreditation are used by the ICC: A: Compliance with the Paris Principles;
    A(R): Accreditation with reserve – granted where insufficient documentation is submitted to confer A status;
    B: Observer Status – Not fully in compliance with the Paris Principles or insufficient information provided to make a determination;
    C: Non-compliant with the Paris Principles.
  40. ↑ Weiss, Peter (2008). "Universal Jurisdiction: Past, Present and Future". Proceedings of the Asil Annual Meeting. 102: 406–409. doi:10.1017/S0272503700028032. ISSN 0272-5037. JSTOR 25660324. S2CID 159412931.
  41. ↑ Ball, Gready (2007) p.70
  42. ↑ "Security Council resolution 138: Question relating to the case of Adolf Eichmann". United Nations Security Council. 23 June 1960. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  43. ↑ Kissinger has himself been subject to calls for prosecution under universal jurisdiction. See Hitchens, Christopher, and David Rieff. "." Prospect, 28 June 2001 (accessed 11 June 2013); Hitchens, Christopher. The Trial of Henry Kissinger. London: Verso, 2001.
  44. ↑ Kissinger, Henry (July–August 2001). "The Pitfall of Universal Jurisdiction". Foreign Affairs. 80 (4): 86–96. doi:10.2307/20050228. JSTOR 20050228. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009.
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