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Empedocles

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Empedocles
Rayuwa
Haihuwa Acragas (en) Fassara, 494 "BCE"
ƙasa Acragas (en) Fassara
Mutuwa Mount Etna (en) Fassara da Peloponnese (en) Fassara, 434 "BCE"
Yanayin mutuwa Kisan kai (falling (en) Fassara)
Ƴan uwa
Mahaifi Exainetos of Akragas
Ƴan uwa
Karatu
Harsuna Ancient Greek (en) Fassara
Malamai Anaxagoras
Parmenides (en) Fassara
Heraclitus (en) Fassara
Pythagoras
Ɗalibai
Sana'a
Sana'a likita, mai falsafa, marubuci, maiwaƙe da ɗan siyasa
Muhimman ayyuka Purifications (en) Fassara
On Nature (en) Fassara
Wanda ya ja hankalinsa Pythagoras
Fafutuka Pluralist school (en) Fassara
Pre-Socratic philosophy (en) Fassara
Empedocles

Empedocles Greek / : Ἐμπεδοκλῆς​​​​​​​​ ; c. 494 – c. 434 BC,fl. 444-443 BC) wani masanin falsafa ne kafin Socratic kuma ɗan asalin Akragas, wani birni na Girkanci a Sicily . Falsafar Empedocles an fi saninta da asalin ka'idar cosmogonic na abubuwan gargajiya guda huɗu. Ya kuma ba da shawarar rundunonin da ya kira Soyayya da Hukunce-hukuncen da za su gauraya da raba abubuwa, bi da bi.

Emperedocles sun kalubalanci al'adar sadaukar da dabbobi da kashe dabbobi don abinci. Ya haɓaka koyaswar reincarnation na musamman. Gabaɗaya ana ɗaukarsa ɗan falsafa na Girka na ƙarshe da ya rubuta ra'ayoyinsa a cikin ayar. Wasu daga cikin ayyukansa sun tsira, fiye da yanayin kowane masanin falsafa kafin Socratic. Tsofaffin marubuta ne suka ƙididdige mutuwar Empedocles, kuma ta kasance batun jiyya da yawa na adabi.

Rayuwa

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Empedocles, zane-zane na ƙarni na 17

Ba a san ainihin kwanakin haihuwar Empedocles da mutuwarsa ba, kuma tsoffin tarihin rayuwarsa sun yi karo da cikakkun bayanai. Duk da haka, sun yarda cewa an haife shi a farkon karni na 5 BC a garin Akragas na Girkanci a Magna Graecia, Sicily ta yau. [1] Masana zamani sun yi imani da daidaiton asusun cewa ya fito daga dangi masu arziki da daraja da kuma cewa kakansa, wanda ake kira Empedocles, ya ci nasara a tseren dawakai a Olympia a Olympiad na 71st (496-495 BC). [lower-alpha 1] Kadan kuma za a iya tantance shi da daidaito. [1]

Tushen bayanai na farko kan rayuwar Empedocles sun fito ne daga zamanin Hellenistic, ƙarnuka da yawa bayan mutuwarsa kuma da daɗewa bayan duk wata tabbataccen shaida game da rayuwarsa da ta halaka. [2] Ilimin zamani gabaɗaya ya yi imanin cewa waɗannan cikakkun bayanai na tarihin rayuwa, gami da ikirarin Aristotle na cewa shi ne “mahaifin rhetoric ”, [lower-alpha 2] koyarwar da ba zai yiwu ba a zamanin Pythagoras, da aikinsa na likita da ma'aikacin mu'ujiza, an ƙirƙira su ne daga fassarar waƙar Empedocles, kamar yadda aka saba yi don tarihin rayuwar da aka rubuta a wannan lokacin. [2]

Mutuwa da gado

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Mutuwar Empedocles ta Salvator Rosa (1615-1673), wanda ke nuna almara zargin kashe kansa na Empedocles tsalle zuwa Dutsen Etna a Sicily.

A cewar Aristotle, Empedocles ya mutu yana da shekaru 60 ( c. 430 BC ), ko da yake wasu marubuta sun yi rayuwarsa har ya kai shekara 109. [lower-alpha 3] Haka nan, akwai tatsuniyoyi game da mutuwarsa: al'ada, wanda aka samo zuwa Heraclides Ponticus, ya wakilta shi kamar an cire shi daga Duniya; yayin da wasu suka sa shi halaka a cikin wutar Dutsen Etna . [lower-alpha 4] Diogenes Laërtius ya rubuta almara cewa Empedocles ya mutu ta wurin jefa kansa a Dutsen Etna a Sicily, domin mutane su gaskata jikinsa ya ɓace kuma ya zama allah marar mutuwa; [lower-alpha 5] dutsen mai aman wuta, duk da haka, ya jefar da ɗaya daga cikin takalmansa na tagulla, yana bayyana yaudarar. Wani labari kuma ya tabbatar da cewa ya jefa kansa cikin dutsen mai aman wuta don ya tabbatar wa almajiransa cewa shi ba ya mutuwa; ya yi imani zai dawo a matsayin allah bayan wuta ta cinye shi. Lucretius ya yi magana game da shi da ƙwazo, kuma a fili yana kallonsa a matsayin abin koyi. [lower-alpha 6] Horace kuma yana nufin mutuwar Empedocles a cikin littafinsa Ars Poetica kuma ya yarda mawaƙa suna da hakkin halaka kansu . [lower-alpha 7] A cikin Icaro-Menippus [it], tattaunawar ban dariya da marubuci Lucian na Samosata na ƙarni na biyu ya rubuta, an sake kimanta makomar Empedocles ta ƙarshe. Maimakon a ƙone shi cikin wutar Dutsen Etna, aman wuta ya ɗauke shi zuwa sama. Ko da yake Empedocles ya raira waƙa ta wurin bala'in, ya ci gaba da rayuwarsa a kan wata, yana tsira ta hanyar ciyar da raɓa.

Burnet ya bayyana cewa Empedocles mai yiwuwa bai mutu a Sicily ba, cewa duka labari mai kyau na Empedocles da aka ɗauka zuwa sama da kuma mummunan game da shi ya jefa kansa a cikin dutsen mai aman wuta na iya samun sauƙin yarda da marubuta na d ¯ a, saboda babu wata al'adar gida don sabawa. su. [4]

Mutuwar Empedocles batu ne na wasan Friedrich Hölderlin na Tod des Empedokles ( Mutuwar Empedocles ) da kuma waƙar Matthew Arnold na Empedocles akan Etna .

Falsafa

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Dangane da ragowar ayyukansa na rayuwa, malaman zamani gabaɗaya sunyi imani cewa Empedocles yana amsawa kai tsaye ga koyarwar Parmenides na monism kuma wataƙila ya saba da aikin Anaxagoras, kodayake yana da wuya ya san ko dai daga baya Eleatics ko koyaswar Atomists . [2] Yawancin labaran tarihin rayuwarsa sun yi iƙirarin cewa Empedocles ya yi karatu tare da Pythagoreans bisa koyarwarsa na reincarnation, ko da yake yana yiwuwa ya koyi wannan daga al'adar gida maimakon kai tsaye daga Pythagoreans . [2]

Cosmogony

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Ka'idar Empedocles abubuwa huɗu (wuta, iska, ruwa da ƙasa), yanke itace daga bugun Lucretius' De rerum natura na 1472

Empedocles sun kafa abubuwa na ƙarshe guda huɗu waɗanda ke yin dukkan tsarin da ke cikin duniya - wuta, iska, ruwa, ƙasa . [5] [lower-alpha 8] Empedocles ya kira waɗannan abubuwa guda huɗu "tushen", [6] wanda kuma ya gano tare da sunayen tatsuniyoyi na Zeus, Hera, Nestis, da Aidoneus [lower-alpha 9] (misali, "Yanzu ku ji tushen sau huɗu. na kowane abu: rayarwa Hera, Hades, Zeus mai haskakawa da kuma Nestis, m maɓuɓɓugan ruwa da hawaye). [7] Empedocles ba su taɓa amfani da kalmar "kashi" ba ( στοιχεῖον, stoicheion ), wanda da alama Plato ne ya fara amfani da shi. [lower-alpha 10]  Dangane da nau'i daban-daban wanda waɗannan abubuwa guda huɗu waɗanda ba za a iya lalacewa ba kuma ba za su iya canzawa ba tare da juna an samar da bambancin tsarin. [5] Yana cikin tarawa da rarrabuwar abubuwa ta haka ke tasowa, Empedocles, kamar masu atomists, sun sami ainihin tsari wanda ya dace da abin da ake kira girma, karuwa ko raguwa. Wani mai fassara ya siffanta falsafarsa da cewa "Ba wani sabon abu da ya zo ko zai iya samuwa; kawai canjin da zai iya faruwa shine canji a cikin juxtaposition na element tare da element." [5] Wannan ka'idar abubuwa hudu ta zama ma'auni na akida na shekaru dubu biyu masu zuwa.

Sai dai abubuwa guda hudu masu sauki ne, masu dawwama, kuma ba za su iya canzawa ba, kuma da yake canji ya kasance sakamakon cakuduwarsu da rabuwar su, haka nan ya zama wajibi a yi tunanin samuwar iko masu motsi da ke kawo cakuduwa da rarrabuwa. Abubuwan guda huɗu duka sun kasance cikin haɗin kai har abada kuma an raba su da juna ta hanyar ikon Allah guda biyu, Ƙauna da faɗa ( Filotes da Neikos ). [5] Soyayya ( φιλότης</link> yana da alhakin jawo nau'i daban-daban na abin da muke kira kwayoyin halitta, da Strife ( νεῖκος</link> ) shine sanadin rabuwarsu. [lower-alpha 11] Idan abubuwa hudu ne suka hada duniya, to Soyayya da Hukunce-hukunce sun bayyana bambancinsu da jituwa. Ƙauna da faɗa abubuwa ne masu ban sha'awa da banƙyama, bi da bi, waɗanda a bayyane suke a bayyane a cikin halayen ɗan adam, amma kuma sun mamaye sararin samaniya. Rundunonin biyu sun yi kakkausar suka a cikin mamayarsu, amma babu wani karfi da zai tsira gaba daya daga dora daya.

Zagayowar sararin samaniya na Empedocles yana dogara ne akan rikici tsakanin ƙauna da husuma.

A matsayin mafi kyau kuma na asali, akwai lokacin da abubuwa masu tsabta da iko biyu suka kasance tare a cikin yanayin hutawa da rashin aiki a cikin nau'i na nau'i. [5] Abubuwan sun wanzu tare a cikin tsarkinsu, ba tare da cakudawa da rarrabuwa ba, kuma ikon haɗin kai na soyayya ya mamaye fage: ikon rabuwar Strife yana kiyaye iyakar gefuna na sararin samaniya. [lower-alpha 12] Tun daga wannan lokacin, husuma ta sami ƙarfi [5] kuma haɗin da ke riƙe tsarkakakken abubuwa na farko tare a cikin sarari ya narke. Abubuwan sun zama duniyar abubuwan al'ajabi da muke gani a yau, cike da banbance-banbance da adawa, waɗanda Soyayya da Husuma ke yi. [5] Empedocles sun zaci sararin samaniya mai zagayawa ta yadda abubuwa ke dawowa su shirya samuwar sararin samaniya don lokaci na gaba na sararin samaniya.

Empedocles sun yi ƙoƙarin yin bayanin rarrabuwar abubuwa, samuwar ƙasa da teku, na Rana da Wata, na yanayi. [5] Ya kuma yi magana game da farkon asalin tsirrai da dabbobi, da kuma ilimin halittar ɗan adam. [5] Yayin da abubuwa suka shiga cikin haɗuwa, an sami sakamako mai ban mamaki - shugabannin ba tare da wuyansa ba, makamai ba tare da kafadu ba. [5] [lower-alpha 13] Sa’ad da waɗannan ɓangarori suka taru, an ga kawuna a jikin mutane, da gawar shanu da kawunan mutane, da siffofi na jinsi biyu . [5] [lower-alpha 14] Amma yawancin waɗannan samfuran na ƙarfin halitta sun ɓace ba zato ba tsammani yayin da suka tashi; kawai a cikin waɗancan lokuta da ba kasafai ba inda aka sami sassan da suka dace da juna sun kasance masu rikitarwa. [5] Don haka duniyar halitta ta samo asali ne daga tarukan da suka dace da juna kamar an yi niyya. [5] Ba da daɗewa ba tasiri daban-daban sun rage halittu na jima'i biyu zuwa namiji da mace, kuma duniya ta cika da rayuwa ta kwayoyin halitta. [5]

Ilimin halin dan Adam

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Kamar Pythagoras, Empedocles sun yi imani da ƙaurawar rai ko metempsychosis, cewa rayuka za a iya reincarnated tsakanin mutane, dabbobi har ma da tsire-tsire. [lower-alpha 15] A cewarsa, dukan mutane, ko kuma wasu zaɓaɓɓu ne kawai daga cikinsu, [2] asali ne daimon da suka rayu cikin jin daɗi har sai sun aikata wani laifi da ba a fayyace ba, mai yuwuwa zubar da jini ko yin rantsuwa. [2] [8] A sakamakon haka, sun fadi a duniya, inda za a tilasta musu su kashe 30,000 hawan keke na metempsychosis ta jikin daban-daban kafin su iya komawa zuwa ga allahntaka . [2] [8] Halin mutum a lokacin rayuwarsa kuma zai tabbatar da zama cikin jiki na gaba. [2] Mutane masu hikima, waɗanda suka koyi sirrin rayuwa, sun fi kusa da allahntaka, [5] [lower-alpha 16] yayin da rayukansu kuma suke kusa da 'yanci daga sake zagayowar reincarnations, bayan haka za su iya hutawa cikin farin ciki. har abada. [lower-alpha 17] Wannan zagayowar halittar jiki da alama an hure ta daga azabar allahn Apollo a matsayin bawa ga Admetus . [8]

Nuni na clepsydras na karni na 5 KZ, ko "agogon ruwa" daga Gidan Tarihi na Agora na Ancient A Athens.

Empedocles mai cin ganyayyaki ne [lower-alpha 18]  da kuma ba da shawarar cin ganyayyaki, tun da jikin dabbobi ma suna zama wuraren da aka azabtar da rayuka. [lower-alpha 19] Ga Empedocles, dukan abubuwa masu rai suna cikin jirgi na ruhaniya ɗaya; tsire-tsire da dabbobi suna da alaƙa a cikin sarkar da ɗan adam ma haɗi ne. [5]

Empedocles an lasafta shi da cikakkiyar ka'idar haske da hangen nesa na farko. Masanin tarihi Will Durant ya lura cewa "Empedocles ya ba da shawarar cewa haske yana ɗaukar lokaci don wucewa daga wannan batu zuwa wani." [9] </link>[ mafi kyau tushe da ake bukata ] Ya gabatar da ra'ayin cewa muna ganin abubuwa domin hasken yana fita daga idanunmu kuma yana taɓa su. Duk da yake akwai kurakurai, wannan ya zama tushen tushe wanda daga baya masana falsafa na Girka da masana lissafi kamar Euclid zasu gina wasu mahimman ka'idodin haske, hangen nesa, da na gani. [10] </link>

An bayyana ilimi ta hanyar ka'idar cewa abubuwan da ke cikin abubuwan da ke waje da mu suna fahimtar abubuwan da suka dace a cikin kanmu. [lower-alpha 20] Kamar an san shi da son. Duk jikin yana cike da pores don haka numfashi yana faruwa akan dukkan firam. A cikin gabobin ma'ana waɗannan pores an daidaita su musamman don karɓar ƙazanta waɗanda ke tasowa daga jikin da ke kewaye da mu; don haka hasashe yana faruwa. [lower-alpha 21] A cikin hangen nesa, wasu barbashi suna fita daga ido don saduwa da irin wannan barbashi da aka fitar daga abin, kuma sakamakon da aka samu shine hangen nesa. [lower-alpha 22] Hane-hane ba wai kawai tunanin abubuwan waje ba ne. [11] </link>[ mafi kyau tushe ake bukata ]

Empedocles ya kuma yi ƙoƙarin yin bayanin abin da ke faruwa na numfashi ta hanyar kwatanci mai zurfi tare da clepsydra, tsohuwar na'ura don isar da ruwa daga jirgin ruwa zuwa wani. [lower-alpha 23] [12] Wannan guntun wani lokaci ana haɗa shi da wani nassi [lower-alpha 24] a cikin Physics na Aristotle inda Aristotle ke nufin mutanen da suka murɗe fatun giya kuma suka kama iska a cikin clepsydras don nuna cewa babu komai . Rubutun hakika yana nuna cewa Empedocles ya san game da yanayin iska, amma bai ce komai ba game da rafuwar, kuma babu wata shaida cewa Empedocles ya yi kowane gwaji tare da clepsydras. [12]

Rubuce-rubuce

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The Strasbourg Empedocles papyrus ya ƙunshi fiye da layuka 50 daga aikin Empedocles akan yanayi waɗanda ba a buga su ba sai 1999. [13]

A cewar Diogenes Laertius, [lower-alpha 25] Empedocles ya rubuta waƙa guda biyu, "Akan Yanayin" da "Akan Tsarkakewa", waɗanda tare suka ƙunshi layi 5000. Duk da haka, kusan layi 550 ne kawai na waƙarsa suka tsira, waɗanda aka nakalto a guntu daga mawallafi na dā.

A cikin tsohon bugu na Empedocles, game da 450 Lines da aka dangana ga "A Nature" wanda kayyade ya falsafa tsarin, kuma ya bayyana ba kawai yanayi da tarihin sararin samaniya, ciki har da ka'idar da hudu classical abubuwa, amma kuma theories a kan haddasawa, fahimta., da tunani, da kuma bayanin abubuwan da ke faruwa a duniya da hanyoyin nazarin halittu. Sauran layukan 100 galibi ana danganta su da “Tsarki”, wanda aka ɗauke shi a matsayin waƙa game da tsarkakewa, ko waƙar da ke ɗauke da duk tunaninsa na addini da ɗabi'a, wanda masu gyara na farko suka ɗauka cewa waka ce ta ba da labarin tatsuniya. na duniya wanda watakila, duk da haka, sun kasance wani ɓangare na tsarin falsafar Empedocles.

Ƙarshen binciken ƙarni na 20 ya canza wannan yanayin. The Strasbourg papyrus [13] [lower-alpha 26] ya ƙunshi babban sashe na "On Nature", gami da layukan da yawa waɗanda a da ake danganta su zuwa "Akan Tsarkakewa". [1] Wannan ya haifar da muhawara mai yawa [2] [14] game da ko ya kamata a dangana guntuwar koyarwarsa ga wasu wakoki guda biyu daban-daban, tare da batutuwa daban-daban; ko dai dukkansu sun samo asali ne daga waka daya mai lakabi biyu; [15] ko kuma ko lakabi ɗaya yana nufin wani ɓangare na dukan waƙar.

Bayanan kula

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  1. ↑ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 51
  2. ↑ Aristotle, Poetics, 1, ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 57.
  3. ↑ Apollonius, ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 52, comp. 74, 73
  4. ↑ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 67, 69, 70, 71; Horace, ad Pison. 464, etc.
  5. ↑ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 69
  6. ↑ See especially Lucretius, i. 716, etc.[3]
  7. ↑ Horace Ars Poetica
  8. ↑ Frag. B17 (Simplicius, Physics, 157–159)
  9. ↑ Frag. B6 (Sextus Empiricus, Against the Mathematicians, x, 315)
  10. ↑ Plato, Timaeus, 48b–c
  11. ↑ Frag. B35, B26 (Simplicius, Physics, 31–34)
  12. ↑ Frag. B35 (Simplicius, Physics, 31–34; On the Heavens, 528–530)
  13. ↑ Frag. B57 (Simplicius, On the Heavens, 586)
  14. ↑ Frag. B61 (Aelian, On Animals, xvi 29)
  15. ↑ Frag. B127 (Aelian, On Animals, xii. 7); Frag. B117 (Hippolytus, i. 3.2)
  16. ↑ Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies, iv. 23.150
  17. ↑ Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies, v. 14.122
  18. ↑ Plato, Meno
  19. ↑ Sextus Empiricus, Against the Mathematicians, ix. 127; Hippolytus, vii. 21
  20. ↑ Frag. B109 (Aristotle, On the Soul, 404b11–15)
  21. ↑ Frag. B100 (Aristotle, On Respiration, 473b1–474a6)
  22. ↑ Frag. B84 (Aristotle, On the Senses and their Objects, 437b23–438a5)
  23. ↑ Aristotle, On Respiration 13
  24. ↑ Aristotle, Physics, 213a24–7
  25. ↑ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 77
  26. ↑ Not to be confused with The Strasbourg papyrus

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Kingsley & Parry 2020.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Inwood 2001.
  3. ↑ Sedley 2003.
  4. ↑ Burnet 1892.
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 Wallace 1911.
  6. ↑ Ströker, E. (September 1968). "Element and Compound. On the Scientific History of Two Fundamental Chemical Concepts". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English (in Turanci). 7 (9): 718–724. doi:10.1002/anie.196807181. ISSN 0570-0833.
  7. ↑ Kingsley 1995.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Primavesi 2008.
  9. ↑ Durant, Will. The Story of Civilization, Volume 2: The Life of Greece (New York; Simon & Schuster) 1939, p. 339.
  10. ↑ Let There be Light 7 August 2006 01:50 BBC Four
  11. ↑ "Empedocles – Encyclopedia".
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Barnes 2002.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Martin & Primavesi 1999.
  14. ↑ Trépanier 2004.
  15. ↑ Osborne 1987.

Littafi Mai Tsarki

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Tsohuwar Shaida

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  •  .codeLaërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Pythagoreans: Empedocles" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 2:8. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
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