Gandun -Daji

Gandun-daji, shine kimiyya da fasaha na ƙirƙirar, sarrafawa, dasa, amfani, ko shuke shuke kiyayewa da gyara gandun daji, dazuzzuka, da albarkatun da ke da alaƙa don fa'idodin ɗan adam da muhalli. Gandunan daji da aka aikata a cikin plantations da na halitta tsaye. Ilimin gandun daji yana da abubuwan da ke cikin ilimin halittu, jiki, zaman takewa, siyasa da kimiyyar gudanarwa.

Gandun daji na zamani gaba ɗaya ya ƙunshi ɗimbin damuwa, a cikin abin da aka sani da gudanar da amfani da yawa, gami da:

Samar da katako
Itacen
Mazaunin namun daji
Gudanar da ingancin ingancin ruwa
Nishaɗi
Yanayin shimfidar wuri da kariyar al'umma
Aiki
Yanayin shimfidar wurare masu kayatarwa
Gudanar da rayayyun halittu
Gudanar da ruwa
Ikon lalatawa
Ajiyar gandun daji a matsayin " sinks " for yanayi carbon dioxide

Ana kiran mai yin aikin gandun daji a matsayin mai kula da gandun daji . Wata kalma ta gama gari ita ce masanin al'adu. Silviculture ya fi ƙanƙanta fiye da gandun daji, yana damuwa da tsire -tsire na gandun daji kawai, amma galibi ana amfani da shi daidai da gandun daji.

Tsarin halittu na gandun daji sun kasance ana ganin su a matsayin mafi mahimmancin ɓangaren sashin duniya da rayuwa ke wanzuwa, kuma gandun daji ya fito azaman muhimmin ilimin kimiyya, sana'a, da fasaha .

Duk cewa mutane sun dogara ne akan gandun daji da bambancin halittu, wasu fiye da wasu. Gandun daji wani yanki ne mai mahimmanci na tattalin arziki a cikin ƙasashe masu masana'antu daban -daban, kamar yadda gandun daji ke ba da sama da ayyuka miliyan 86 na kore kuma suna tallafawa rayuwar mutane da yawa. ^[1] Misali, a Jamus, gandun daji suna rufe kusan kashi ɗaya bisa uku na yankin ƙasa, itace itace mafi mahimmancin albarkatun sabuntawa, kuma gandun daji yana tallafawa ayyuka sama da miliyan da kusan billion 181 na ƙima ga tattalin arzikin Jamus a kowace shekara.

An kiyasta mutane miliyan 880 suna ɓata lokacin su tattara itace ko yin gawayi, yawancin su mata. Yawan Humanan adam yana da ƙarancin ƙarfi a yankunan ƙasashe masu ƙarancin kuɗi da ke da yawan gandun daji da yawan gandun dazuka, amma yawan talauci a waɗannan yankuna ya yi yawa. ^[1] Kimanin mutane miliyan 252 da ke zaune a cikin dazuzzuka da savannah suna samun kuɗin shiga kasa da dalar Amurka 1.25 a kowace rana. ^[1]

Tarihi.

Asaili

Werner Sombart da wasu sun yi masa lakabi da shekarun kafin aikin masana'antu a matsayin 'shekarun amfani da itace', kamar yadda katako da katako su ne tushen albarkatun makamashi, gini da gidaje. Haɓaka gandun daji na zamani yana da alaƙa da haɓaka jari -hujja, tattalin arziƙi a matsayin kimiyya da ra'ayoyi iri -iri na amfani da ƙasa. ^[2] Roman Latifundiae, manyan gonaki na aikin gona, sun yi nasara sosai wajen kula da wadataccen itace wanda ya zama dole ga Daular Roma. Manyan gandun daji sun zo tare bi da bi bayan faduwar Rum. ^[3] Duk da haka tuni a ƙarni na 5, sufaye a lokacin Byzantine Romagna a bakin tekun Adriatic, sun sami damar kafa gandun daji na dutse don samar da katako da abinci . Wannan shine farkon babban gandun dajin da Dante Alighieri ya ambata a cikin wakarsa ta 1308 Divine Comedy . ^[4]

Irin waɗannan ayyukan gandun daji na dindindin waɗanda Visigoths suka haɓaka a c ikin ƙarni na 7 lokacin da, yayin fuskantar karancin katako da yawa, sun kafa lambar da ta shafi kula da itacen oak da gandun daji. A amfani da kuma gudanar da yawa gandun daji da albarkatun yana da dogon tarihi a kasar Sin, kazalika, dating mayar da Han da daular da faruwa a karkashin landowning gentry . An yi amfani da irin wannan tsarin a Japan. An kuma daga baya aka rubuta game da daular Ming na kasar Sin masanin Xu Guangqi (1562-1633).

A Turai, haƙƙoƙin amfani da ƙasa a cikin tsaka -tsaki da farkon zamani sun ba wa masu amfani daban -daban damar shiga gandun daji da wuraren kiwo. Haɓakar tsirrai da haɓakar resin suna da mahimmanci, kamar yadda farar (resin) yana da mahimmanci don ɗaukar jiragen ruwa, ɓarna da haƙƙin farauta, itacen wuta da gini, tattara katako a cikin wuraren kiwo na itace, da dabbobin kiwo a cikin gandun daji. Ma'anar " commons " (Jamusanci "Allmende") yana nufin asalin kalmar doka ta ƙasa gama gari . Tunanin mallakar dukiya mai zaman kansa ya samo asali ne a lokutan zamani. Koyaya, mafi yawan haƙƙoƙin farauta an riƙe su ta membobi na manyan waɗanda suka kiyaye haƙƙin masarauta don samun dama da amfani da filayen gama gari don nishaɗi, kamar farautar fox .

Farkon ci gaban Gandun-daji na zamani

Gudanar da gandun daji don samar da katako mai ɗorewa ya fara a Fotigal a ƙarni na goma sha uku 13 lokacin da Sarki AfonsoIII ya dasa Pinhal do Rei (Dajin Sarki na Pine) kusa da Leiria don hana yashewar bakin teku da lalacewar ƙasa, kuma azaman tushen ci gaba ga katako da ake amfani da shi a cikin jirgin ruwa gini. Magajinsa Sarki Denis na Portugal ya ci gaba da aikin kuma har yanzu dajin yana nan.

Gudanar da gandun-daji kuma ya bunƙasa a cikin jihohin Jamus a karni na 14, misali a Nuremberg, da kuma a Japan na ƙarni na 16. Yawanci, an raba gandun daji zuwa takamaiman sashe kuma aka zana; an shirya girbin katako da ido don sabuntawa. Kamar yadda raunin katako ya ba da damar haɗa manyan gandun daji na duniya, kamar yadda a kudu maso yammacin Jamus, ta Main, Neckar, Danube da Rhine tare da biranen bakin teku da jihohi, farkon gandun daji na zamani da ciniki mai nisa suna da alaƙa. An kira manyan firs a cikin dajin baƙar fata "Holländer", yayin da aka yi ciniki da su zuwa yaduddukan jirgin ruwan na Holland. Manyan katako na katako a kan Rhine sun kai tsawon mita 200 zuwa 400, faɗin 40m kuma ya ƙunshi logi dubu da yawa. Ma'aikatan sun kunshi maza 400 zuwa 500, da suka hada da mafaka, gidajen burodi, tanda da wuraren kiwon dabbobi. An ba da damar kayan aikin katako na katako don manyan cibiyoyin haɗin gwiwa a duk faɗin nahiyar Turai kuma har yanzu yana da mahimmanci a cikin kasar Finland.

Farawa daga ƙarni na goma sha shida (16), haɓaka kasuwancin teku na duniya, bunƙasar ginin gidaje a Turai, da nasara da ƙarin Berggeschrey (rushes) na masana'antar hakar ma'adinai sun haɓaka amfani da katako sosai. Ra'ayin 'Nachhaltigkeit', dorewa a cikin gandun daji, yana da alaƙa da aikin Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645 - 1714), mai gudanar da hakar ma'adinai a Saxony . Littafinsa Sylvicultura oeconomica, ko kuma haußwirthliche Nachricht und Naturmäßige Anweisung zur wilden Baum-Zucht (1713) shi ne littafin farko na cikakken bayani game da gandun daji mai ɗorewa. A Birtaniya, da, zuwa wani har, a nahiyar Turai, da yadi motsi da Clearances yi falala a kansu tsananin kewaye zaman kansa dukiya. ^[5] Masu gyara Agrarian, marubutan tattalin arziki na farko da masana kimiyya sunyi ƙoƙarin kawar da al'adun gargajiya. ^[6] A lokacin, wani bala'in da ake zargi na gama gari tare da tsoron Holznot, ƙarancin katako ya taka rawa a cikin rigingimu game da tsarin amfani da ƙasa.

John Evelyn ne ya inganta aikin kafa bishiyoyin bishiyoyi a cikin Tsibiran Biritaniya, kodayake ya riga ya sami shahara. Ministan Louis XIV Jean-Baptiste Colbert dajin Tronçais na itacen oak, wanda aka dasa don amfanin rundunar sojan ruwan Faransa a nan gaba, ya balaga kamar yadda ake tsammani a tsakiyar karni na 19: "Colbert ya yi tunanin komai ban da jirgin ruwa," in ji Fernand Braudel . A cikin layi daya, an kafa makarantun gandun daji tun daga ƙarshen karni na 18 a Hesse, Rasha, Austria-Hungary, Sweden, Faransa da sauran wurare a Turai.

Kula da gandun daji da farkon duniya

An fara daga shekara ta 1750s zamani kimiyya da gandunan daji da aka ɓullo da a Faransa da kuma Jamus magana kasashe a cikin mahallin tarihin yanayin malanta da kuma jihar gwamnati wahayi zuwa gare ta physiocracy da cameralism . Manyan halayensa sune ƙwararrun masu kula da gandun daji, da riko da dabarun samar da ɗorewa tare da nuna son kai ga samar da katako da samar da katako, gandun daji na wucin gadi, da mahimmin ra'ayi game da amfanin makiyaya da aikin gona na gandun daji.

A ƙarshen karni na 19 da farkon ƙarni na 20, an kafa shirye -shiryen kiyaye gandun-daji a Burtaniya Indiya, Amurka, da Turai. Yawancin masu gandun daji sun fito ne daga Nahiyar Turai (kamar Sir Dietrich Brandis ), ko kuma sun yi karatu a can (kamar Gifford Pinchot ). Ana ganin Sir Dietrich Brandis uban gandun daji na wurare masu zafi, dole ne a daidaita dabarun Turai da ayyukansu a yankuna na yanayin zafi da na kusa. A ci gaba da plantation da gandunan daji da aka daya daga cikin (rigima) amsoshin da takamaiman kalubale a cikin wurare masu zafi da mazauna. A enactment da kuma ci gaba na gandun daji dokokin da dauri da dokokinta faru a mafi kasashen yammacin turai a cikin karni na 20th a mayar da martani ga girma kiyayewa damuwa da kuma kara fasaha damar shiga kamfanoni. Gandun daji na Tropical wani reshe ne na gandun daji wanda ke hulɗa musamman da gandun dajin da ke samar da katako kamar teak da mahogany .

Ingantawa

Inganta sarrafa gandun daji koyaushe yana da alaƙa da aikin ƙarfe da haɓaka kayan aikin injin don yanke da jigilar katako zuwa inda ya nufa. Rafting na farkon hanyoyin sufuri ne. Gilashin karfe sun fito a karni na 15. Karni na 19 ya ƙaru sosai da samun ƙarfe don bulala kuma ya gabatar da layin dogo na daji da layin dogo gaba ɗaya don sufuri kuma a matsayin abokin ciniki na gandun daji. Ƙarin canje -canjen ɗan adam, duk da haka, ya zo ne tun bayan Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, daidai da daidai da '' 1950s syndrome ''. ^[7] An ƙirƙira sarkar shuni na farko a cikin 1918 a Kanada, amma babban tasirin injiniyanci a cikin gandun daji ya fara bayan Yaƙin Duniya na II. Masu girbin gandun daji na daga cikin abubuwan da suka faru kwanan nan. Kodayake jirage masu saukar ungulu, jirage, binciken lesa, tauraron dan adam da mutummutumi suma suna taka rawa a cikin gandun daji.

Jaridun farko waɗanda har yanzu suna nan

An buga Sylwan a farkon 1820 ^[8]
Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Forstwesen ya fara bugawa a 1850. ^[8]
Erdészeti Lapok ya fara bugawa a 1862. (Hungary, 1862- yanzu)
The Indian Forester ya fara bugawa a 1875. ^[8]
An buga jerin Šumarski (Binciken gandun daji, Croatia) a cikin 1877 ta Cibiyar Kula da Gandun daji ta Croatia. ^[8] ^[9]
Montes (Forestry, Spain) da aka fara bugawa a 1877. ^[8]
Revista pădurilor (Journal of Forests, Romania, 1881–1882; 1886
Quarterly Forestry, wanda aka fara bugawa a 1902 ta Kwalejin Kula da Gandun daji ta New York .
(Forestry, Serbia) ta fara bugawa a 1948 ta Ma'aikatar Gandun dajin Yugoslavia ta Demokradiyya, kuma tun daga 1951 ta Ƙungiyar Injiniyoyin Injinan Gine -gine da Masu Fasaha na Jamhuriyar Serbia (ta maye gurbin tsohon Šumarski glasnik da aka buga daga 1907 zuwa 1921)

Gandun-daji a karni na 21

A yau akwai ƙungiyar bincike mai ƙarfi game da gudanar da yanayin yanayin gandun-daji da haɓaka ƙirar nau'ikan bishiyoyi da iri . Karatun gandun daji kuma sun haɗa da haɓaka ingantattun hanyoyi don shuka, karewa, sirara, ƙonawa mai sarrafawa, faɗuwa, cirewa, da sarrafa katako . Ofaya daga cikin aikace -aikacen gandun daji na zamani shine sake dasa bishiyoyi, inda ake shuka bishiyoyi kuma ana kula da su a wani yanki.

Bishiyoyi suna ba da fa'idoji da yawa na muhalli, zamantakewa da tattalin arziki ga mutane. A yankuna da yawa, masana'antar gandun daji tana da mahimmancin muhalli, tattalin arziki, da zamantakewa, tare da Amurka tana samar da katako fiye da kowace ƙasa a duniya. Ɓangare na uku takardar shaida tsarin cewa samar da m tabbaci na sauti gandun daji stewardship da kuma ] orewar da gandunan daji sun zama sananne a yankunan da yawa tun 1990s. Waɗannan tsarin ba da takardar shaida sun ɓullo a matsayin martani ga sukar wasu ayyukan gandun daji, musamman sare itatuwa a yankuna marasa ci gaba tare da damuwa kan sarrafa albarkatu a cikin ƙasashen da suka ci gaba .

A cikin yanayin gandun daji mai tsananin girma, gandun dajin da ya dace yana da mahimmanci don rigakafin ko rage girman zaizayar ƙasa ko ma zaftarewar ƙasa . A yankunan da ke da yuwuwar zaftarewar kasa, gandun daji na iya daidaita kasa da hana lalacewar dukiya ko asara, raunin mutum, ko asarar rai.

Masu Aikin Gandun-daji

Masu ba da labari na Jami'ar Australiya na Chile a cikin gandun dajin Valdivian na San Pablo de Tregua, Chile

Masu aikin Gandun-Daji suna aiki don masana'antar katako, hukumomin gwamnati, ƙungiyoyin kiyaye muhalli, ƙananan hukumomi, allon wuraren shakatawa na birni, ƙungiyoyin 'yan ƙasa, da masu mallakar filaye masu zaman kansu. Sana'ar gandun daji ta ƙunshi ayyuka iri -iri, tare da buƙatun ilimi tun daga matakin digiri na kwaleji zuwa PhD don aikin ƙwararru. Masu gandun daji na masana’antu suna shirin farfado da gandun daji daga farawa da girbi cikin tsanaki. Masu gandun daji na birni suna sarrafa bishiyoyi a cikin sarari koren birane . Foresters aiki a itãciya Nurseries girma seedlings for Woodland halittar ko farfadowa ayyukan. Foresters suna haɓaka ƙwayoyin halittar bishiyoyi. Injiniyoyin gandun daji suna haɓaka sabbin tsarin gini. Kwararrun gandun daji suna aunawa da ƙira girma na gandun daji tare da kayan aiki kamar tsarin bayanan ƙasa . Foresters iya magance kwari infestation, cuta, gandun daji da kuma makiyayar da wildfire, amma ƙara da damar da wadannan halitta al'amurran da gandun daji kunsa su gudu su hanya a lokacin da alama na annoba, ko hadarin rayuwa ko dukiya ne low. Ƙari, masu gandun daji suna shiga cikin tsare -tsaren kiyaye namun daji da kariyar ruwa. Kasashen duniya sun fi damuwa da kula da katako, musamman sake dasa itatuwa, kula da gandun daji a yanayi mafi kyau, da sarrafa wuta.

Shirye -shiryen gandun daji

Foresters ci gaba da aiwatar da tsare-tsaren da dazuka dogaro tsara hanya inventories nuna wani yanki ta topographical siffofin da kuma ta rarraba itatuwa (da jinsunan) da sauran shuka murfin. Hakanan tsare -tsaren sun haɗa da makasudin masu mallakar ƙasa, hanyoyi, kwalbatoci, kusanci da mazaunin ɗan adam, fasalin ruwa da yanayin ruwa, da bayanan ƙasa. Tsare -tsaren gudanar da gandun daji yawanci sun haɗa da shawarwarin al'adun gargajiyar al'adu da jadawalin aiwatarwa. Aikace -aikacen taswirar dijital a cikin Tsarin Bayanai na Geographic (GIS) wanda ke fitar da haɗe bayanai daban -daban game da farfajiyar gandun daji, nau'in ƙasa da murfin bishiyoyi, da sauransu ta amfani da, misali binciken laser, yana haɓaka tsare -tsaren gudanar da gandun daji acikin tsarin zamani.

Tsare -tsaren kula da gandun-daji sun haɗa da shawarwari don cimma burin mai mallakar ƙasa da yanayin da ake so a nan gaba don dukiyar da ke ƙarƙashin yanayin muhalli, kuɗi, kayan aiki (misali samun albarkatu), da sauran taƙaitawa. A wasu kaddarorin, tsare -tsaren suna mai da hankali kan samar da samfuran itace masu inganci don sarrafawa ko siyarwa. Don haka, nau'in bishiyoyi, adadi, da sifa, duk suna da mahimmanci ga ƙimar samfuran da aka girbe da ƙima, galibi sune mahimman sassan tsare -tsaren al'adu.

Kyakkyawan tsare -tsaren gudanarwa sun haɗa da yin la’akari da yanayin yanayin tsayuwa na gaba bayan duk wani shawarar girbi da aka ba da shawarar, gami da jiyya na gaba (musamman a cikin tsayayyun tsayayyar tsayuwa), da tsare -tsaren farfadowar na halitta ko na wucin gadi bayan girbin ƙarshe.

Manufofin masu mallakar ƙasa da masu haya suna yin tasiri ga tsare -tsaren girbi da kuma kula da wurin. A kasar Biritaniya, tsare -tsaren da ke nuna "kyakkyawan aikin gandun daji" dole ne koyaushe su yi la’akari da buƙatun sauran masu ruwa da tsaki kamar al'ummomin da ke kusa ko mazaunan karkara da ke zaune ko kusa da wuraren dazuzzuka. Foresters suna la'akari da sare bishiyoyi da dokokin muhalli lokacin haɓaka shirye -shirye. Shirye -shiryen suna koyar da girbi mai dorewa da maye gurbin bishiyoyi. Suna nuna ko ana buƙatar ginin hanya ko wasu ayyukan injiniyan gandun daji.

Noma, da gandun-daji da shugabannin an kuma kokarin fahimtar yadda da sauyin yanayi canji dokokin zai shafi abin da suke aikatãwa. Bayanan da aka tattara za su bayar da bayanan da za su tantance rawar da aikin gona da gandun daji ke takawa a cikin sabon tsarin sarrafa canjin yanayi.

Daji a matsayin kimiyya

A cikin ƙarni da suka gabata, ana ɗaukar gandun daji a matsayin kimiyya daban. Tare da haɓaka kimiyyar muhalli da kimiyyar muhalli, an sami sake daidaitawa a cikin ilimin da ake amfani da su. Dangane da wannan ra'ayi, gandun daji shine kimiyyar amfani da ƙasa ta farko idan aka kwatanta da aikin gona . ^[10] A karkashin wadannan kanun labarai, muhimman abubuwan da ke tattare da kula da gandun daji na halitta suna zuwa ta hanyar ilimin halittu. Gandun daji ko dasa bishiyoyi, waɗanda babban manufarsu ita ce haɓakar samfuran gandun daji, an tsara su kuma ana sarrafa su ta amfani da cakuda ƙa'idodin muhalli da na agroecological. ^[11] A yankuna da yawa na duniya akwai babban rikici tsakanin ayyukan gandun daji da sa uran fifikon al'umma kamar ingancin ruwa, kiyaye ruwa, kamun kifi mai dorewa, kiyayewa, da kiyaye nau'in.

Bambancin halitta a gandun daji

Tushen samar da kayan gandun daji da ake amfani da su don dasa gandun daji yana da babban tasiri kan yadda bishiyoyin ke bunƙasa, saboda haka me yasa yake da mahimmanci a yi amfani da kayan aikin gandun daji na inganci mai kyau da kuma bambancin halittu . Gabaɗaya, duk ayyukan gudanar da gandun daji, gami da tsarin farfadowa na halitta, na iya shafar bambancin bishiyoyin.

Kalmar kwayoyin jinsi diversity bayyana bambance -bambancen da ke cikin jerin DNA tsakanin mutane daban -daban daga bambancin da tasirin muhalli ya haifar. Haɗin keɓaɓɓen ƙwayar halittar mutum ( nau'in halittar sa ) zai ƙayyade aikinsa ( samfurin sa ) a wani rukunin yanar gizo.

Ana buƙatar bambancin jinsin halittu don kula da mahimmancin gandun-daji da kuma samar da juriya ga kwari da cututtuka . Bambancin kwayoyin halitta kuma yana tabbatar da cewa bishiyoyin gandun daji na iya rayuwa, daidaitawa da haɓakawa a ƙarƙashin sauyin yanayin muhalli. Bugu da ƙari, bambancin kwayoyin halitta shine ginshiƙan bambancin halittu a cikin jinsuna da matakan muhalli. Don haka albarkatun kwayoyin gandun daji suna da mahimmanci a yi la’akari da su a kula da gandun daji.

Bambance -bambancen halittu a gandun-daji yana fuskantar barazanar gobarar daji, kwari da cututtuka, rarrabuwa na mazaunin, rashin kyawun al'adun silvic da amfani mara kyau na kayan haihuwa na gandun daji.

Kimanin kadada miliyan 98 na gandun daji gobara ta shafa a shekarar 2015; wannan ya fi yawa a cikin wurare masu zafi, inda wuta ta ƙone kusan kashi 4 na jimlar yankin gandun daji a waccan shekarar. Fiye da kashi biyu bisa uku na jimlar yankin gandun da abin ya shafa yana cikin Afirka da Kudancin Amurka. Ƙwari, cututtuka da munanan yanayin yanayi sun lalata hekta miliyan arba'in na gandun daji a cikin 2015, galibi a cikin yankuna masu ɗimbin yawa.

Bugu da ƙari, mafi yawancin bishiyoyi suna fuskantar sabbin barazanar saboda canjin yanayi.

Yawancin ƙasashe a Turai suna da shawarwari ko jagorori don zaɓar nau'ikan da tabbatattun abubuwan da za a iya amfani da su a wani yanki ko yan ki.

Ilimi

Tarihin ilimin gandun-daji

Georg Ludwig Hartig ya kafa makarantar gandun-daji ta farko a garin Hungen a Wetterau, Hesse, a cikin 1787, kodayake an koyar da gandun daji a baya a tsakiyar Turai, gami da Jami'ar Giessen, a Hesse-Darmstadt .

A Spain, makarantar gandun daji ta farko ita ce Makarantar Injiniya ta Madrid ( Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes ), wacce aka kafa a shekarar 1844.

Na farko a Arewacin Amurka, an kafa Makarantar Gandun Dajin Biltmore kusa da Asheville, North Carolina, ta Carl A. Schenck a ranar 1 ga Satumba, 1898, a kan filin George W. Vanderbilt na Biltmore Estate . Wata makarantar farko ita ce Kwalejin Kula da gandun daji ta Jihar New York, wacce aka kafa a Jami'ar Cornell bayan 'yan makonni kaɗan, a watan Satumba 1898. Farkon karni na 19 masu gandun daji na Arewacin Amurka sun tafi Jamus don yin nazarin gandun daji. Wasu masu gandun daji na farko na Jamus suma sun yi hijira zuwa Arewacin Amurka.

A Kudancin Amurka an kafa makarantar gandun daji ta farko a kasar Brazil, a Viçosa, Minas Gerais, a 1962, kuma ta koma shekara mai zuwa ta zama malami a Jami'ar Tarayya ta Paraná, a Curitiba.

Ilimin gandun-daji a yau

Masu gandun daji suna amfani da ƙonawa da aka ba da izini don rage yawan mai

A yau, ilimin gandun daji yawanci ya haɗa da horo cikin ilimin halittu gabaɗaya, ilmin halitta, ilimin halittu, ilimin halittu, kimiyyar ƙasa, canjin yanayi, ilimin ruwa, tattalin arziki da gudanar da gandun daji . Ilimi a cikin ginshiƙan ilimin zamantakewa da kimiyyar siyasa galibi ana ɗaukar fa'ida. Kwarewar ƙwararru a ƙudurin rikici da sadarwa ma suna da mahimmanci a cikin shirye -shiryen horo.

A kasar Indiya, ana ba da ilimin gandun daji a cikin jami'o'in aikin gona da kuma a Cibiyar Nazarin Gandun daji (jami'o'in da ake ɗauka). Ana gudanar da shirye -shiryen digiri na shekaru huɗu a cikin waɗannan jami'o'in a matakin farko. Hakanan ana samun digiri na biyu da na Doctorate a cikin waɗannan jami'o'in.

A kasar Amurka, Cibiyar Kula da Gandun daji na gaba da sakandare wacce ke kaiwa ga Digiri na Bachelor ko Digiri na Babbar Jagora ya sami karbuwa daga Society of American Foresters .

A Kanada Cibiyar Kula da Gandun daji ta Kanada tana ba da zoben azurfa ga masu digiri daga shirye -shiryen BSc na jami'a, da shirye -shiryen kwaleji da fasaha.

A ƙasashen Turai da yawa, ana yin horo a cikin gandun daji daidai da buƙatun Tsarin Bologna da Yankin Babban Ilimi na Turai .

Ƙungiyoyin Binciken Gandun daji ta Duniya ita ce kawai ƙungiyar duniya da ke daidaita ƙoƙarin kimiyyar gandun daji a duk duniya.

Ci gaba da ilimi

Domin ci-gaba da canza buƙatu da abubuwan muhalli, ilimin gandun daji bai tsaya a kammala karatu ba. Bugu da ƙari, ƙwararrun gandun daji suna shiga horo na yau da kullun don kulawa da haɓaka ayyukan gudanar da su. Wani shahararren kayan aiki shine marteloscopes ; kadada mai girman kadada guda ɗaya, wuraren gandun daji mai kusurwa huɗu inda aka ƙidaya dukkan bishiyoyi, aka zana su kuma aka yi rikodin su. Ana iya amfani da waɗannan rukunin yanar gizon don yin tunani na yau da kullun da gwada ingancin katako na mutum da ƙididdigar ƙima da microhabitats na itace. Wannan tsarin yafi dacewa ga yankuna da ƙananan tsarin sarrafa gandun daji masu yawa.

Karin haske game da binciken gandun daji da ilimi

Jerin cibiyoyin binciken gandun daji
Jerin makarantun fasaha na gandun daji
Jerin jami'o'in gandun daji da kwalejoji
Jerin mujallolin tarihi na gandun daji
Cibiyar Kula da Gandun Daji (rashin fahimta)

Duba kuma

Majiyoyi

Samfuri:Free-content attribution

Hanyoyin waje

Media related to Gandun -Daji at Wikimedia Commons
Samfuri:Wikisource inline
Gandun -Daji a Curlie

Manazarta

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :0
↑ compare Joachim Radkau Wood: A History, 2011
↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named yale
↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Pines
↑ Radkau, Joachim. Nature and Power. A Global History of the Environment. Cambridge University Press. 2008.
↑ Nature and Power, A Global History of the Environment, by Joachim Radkau, 2008, p. 72
↑ Christian Pfister (Hrsg.), Das 1950er Syndrom: Der Weg in die Konsumgesellschaft, Bern 1995
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 ^8.3 ^8.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named RPonline
↑ Šumarski list Archived 2012-09-12 at Archive.today (Forestry Review), with full digital archive since 1877
↑ Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 356p.
↑ Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2006) Undoing the Damage: Silviculture for Ecologists and Environmental Scientists. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 313p.

[:0-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :0

[2] re Joachim Radkau Wood: A History, 2011

[yale-3] Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named yale

[Pines-4] Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Pines

[Rad-5] Radkau, Joachim. Nature and Power. A Global History of the Environment. Cambridge University Press. 2008.

[rad1-6] Nature and Power, A Global History of the Environment, by Joachim Radkau, 2008, p. 72

[7] Christian Pfister (Hrsg.), Das 1950er Syndrom: Der Weg in die Konsumgesellschaft, Bern 1995

[RPonline-8] 8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 ^8.3 ^8.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named RPonline

[9] Šumarski list Archived 2012-09-12 at Archive.today (Forestry Review), with full digital archive since 1877

[10] Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 356p.

[11] Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2006) Undoing the Damage: Silviculture for Ecologists and Environmental Scientists. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 313p.

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