Muhammad Ahmad

Muhammad Ahmad
Rayuwa
Haihuwa	Dongola, 12 ga Augusta, 1844
Harshen uwa	Larabci; Dongolawi (en)
Mutuwa	Khartoum, 22 ga Yuni, 1885
Makwanci	The Mahdi's tomb (en)
Yanayin mutuwa	Sababi na ainihi (Typhus)
Karatu
Harsuna	Larabci
Sana'a
Sana'a	ɗan siyasa, Ulama'u, Shugaban soji, Mai kare Haƙƙin kai da slave trader (en)
Imani
Addini	Musulunci

Muhammad Ahmad bin Abdullah bin Fahal ( Larabci: محمد أحمد بن عبد الله بن فحل‎; 12 ga Agusta 1843 – 21 ga Yuni 1885) shugaban addini da siyasa ne na Sudan. A shekara ta 1881 ya yi iƙirarin cewa shi Mahadi ne, kuma ya jagoranci yaƙin da Masar ta yi nasara a Sudan wanda ya kai ga nasara mai ban mamaki a kan su a yaƙin ƙwatar Khartoum . Ya ƙirƙiro daular Musulunci mai faɗi da ta taso tun daga Bahar Maliya zuwa Afirka ta Tsakiya, sannan ya kafa wata ƙungiya da ta kasance mai tasiri a Sudan har tsawon ƙarni guda.

Daga sanarwar da ya yi na ƙasar Mahdi a watan Yuni 1881 har zuwa ƙarshen ta a 1898, ^[1] Magoya bayan Mahdi, Ansar, sun kafa da dama daga cikin rukunan tauhidi da siyasa. Bayan mutuwar Muhammad Ahmad daga kamuwa da cutar ta typhus a ranar 22 ga watan Yunin 1885, babban mataimakinsa, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad ya karbi ragamar mulkin jihar Mahdist.

Kasar Mahdist, wacce ta raunana sakamakon mulkin kama-karya na magajinsa da kasa hada kan al'ummar kasar don tinkarar katangar mulkin Burtaniya da yakin da ya biyo baya, ta wargaje ne bayan mamayar Anglo-Masar ta kasar Sudan a shekarar 1899. Duk da haka, Mahadi ya kasance mutum mai daraja a tarihin Sudan . A karshen karni na 20, daya daga cikin zuriyarsa kai tsaye, Sadiq al-Mahdi, sau biyu ya zama firaministan Sudan (1966-1967 da 1986-1989), kuma ya bi manufofin dimokuradiyya .

Rayuwar farko

An haifi Mohammed Ahmed bin Abdullah bin Fahal a ranar 12 ga Agusta 1843 a tsibirin Labab, Dongola a arewacin Sudan. An haife shi a cikin sanannen dangin Nubian Larabawa masu addini suna bin zuriyarsu daga Annabin Musulunci Muhammad ta hanyar zuriyar jikansa Hassan . ^[2] Lokacin Mohammed Ahmed yana ƙarami, danginsa sun ƙaura zuwa garin Karari, arewacin Omdurman . A nan ne mahaifinsa Ahmad bin Abdullah ya samu isassun kayan itace don aikin ginin jirgin ruwa, amma ya rasu jim kadan bayan isarsu. Bayan rasuwar mahaifinsa, 'yan uwansa Mohammed da Hamed, suka ci gaba da kasuwanci da kera jiragen ruwa. Daga nan sai dangin suka koma birnin Khartoum na ɗan lokaci kaɗan, inda mahaifiyarsu Zainab bint Nasr ta rasu aka binne su.

Yayin da ’yan uwansa suka shiga sana’ar mahaifinsa, Muhammad Ahmad ya nuna kwazon karatun addini. Ya fara karatu a wajen Sheikh al-Amin al-Suwaylih a yankin Gezira da ke kudancin Khartoum, sannan ya yi karatu a karkashin Sheikh Muhammad al-Dikayr 'Abdallah Khujali kusa da garin Berber a arewacin Sudan. ^[2]

Ya kuduri aniyar gudanar da rayuwa ta zurfafa zurfafa zurfafa tunani da ibada, a shekarar 1861 ya nemi Sheikh Muhammad Sharif Nur al-Dai'm jikan wanda ya kafa darikar Sufaye ta Samaniyya a kasar Sudan. Muhammad Ahmad ya zauna tare da Sheikh Muhammad Sharif na tsawon shekaru bakwai, a lokacin ne aka san shi da tsoron Allah da son zuciya. Kusan karshen wannan zamani ne aka ba shi lakabin Sheikh, sannan ya fara zagayawa kasar nan domin gudanar da ayyukan addini. An ba shi izinin yin tariqa da Uhudu ga sababbin mabiya.

A cikin 1870, danginsa sun sake ƙaura don neman katako, suna komawa tsibirin Aba . A nan Muhammad Ahmad ya gina masallaci ya fara karantar da Al-Qur'ani . Ba da daɗewa ba ya sami suna a cikin jama'ar yankin a matsayin kyakkyawan mai magana da sufi. Fadin koyarwarsa ya bi ta sauran masu gyara: Musuluncinsa ya kasance mai karkata zuwa ga maganar Muhammadu kuma bisa komawa ga kyawawan halaye na tsantsar ibada, da addu'a, da sauki kamar yadda Alkur'ani ya shimfida.

A cikin 1872, Muhammad Ahmad ya gayyaci Sheikh Sharif da ya ƙaura zuwa al-Aradayb, wani yanki da ke kusa da Tsibirin Aba na White Nile . Duk da dangantakar da ke tsakaninta da farko, a shekara ta 1878 shugabannin addini biyu sun sami sabani sakamakon bacin ran da Sheikh Sharif ya yi na karuwar farin jinin tsohon dalibinsa. Sakamakon haka Sheikh Sharif ya kori tsohon dalibinsa daga Daular Samaniyya, kuma duk da kokarin sulhu da Muhammad Ahmad yayi da yawa, ubangidansa ya ki yin sulhu. ^[1]

Bayan da Muhammad Ahmad ya gane cewa ba za a iya sasantawa da Sheikh Sharif ba, sai ya tunkari wani babban shugaban Daular Samaniyya mai suna Sheikh al-Qurashi wad al-Zayn. Muhammad Ahmad ya dawo rayuwarsa ta ibada da ibada a tsibirin Aba. A wannan lokacin, ya kuma yi tattaki zuwa lardin Kordofan da ke yammacin Khartoum, inda ya ziyarci babban birnin kasar, El-Obeid . An tsunduma su ne a rikicin mulki tsakanin wasu masu da’awar neman kujerar gwamnan lardin.

A ranar 25 ga Yulin 1878, Sheikh al-Qurashi ya rasu kuma mabiyansa suka amince da Muhammad Ahmad a matsayin sabon shugabansu. A daidai wannan lokaci, Muhammad Ahmad ya fara haduwa da Abdallahi bin Muhammad al-Ta'aishi, wanda zai zama babban mataimakinsa kuma magajinsa a shekaru masu zuwa.

Sanarwa Mahdiyya

A ranar 29 ga Yuni 1881, Muhammad Ahmad ya yi iƙirarin cewa shi ne Mahdiyya don shirya hanyar zuwan Yesu na biyu. ^[3] A wani bangare kuma da'awarsa ta dogara ne akan matsayinsa na babban shehin Sufaye mai dimbin magoya baya a Daular Samaniyya da kuma cikin kabilun da ke kewayen tsibirin Aba . ^[4]

Amma duk da haka ra'ayin Mahdiyya ya kasance jigon imani na Samaniyya kafin bayyanin Muhammad Ahmad. Shugaban Samaniyya da ya gabata, Sheikh al-Qurashi Wad al-Zayn, ya tabbatar da cewa wanda ake jira na fansa zai fito ne daga layin Samaniyya. A cewar Sheikh al-Qurashi, Mahadi zai bayyana kansa ta hanyoyi da dama, wasu sun tabbata a farkon musulunci kuma suna rubuce a cikin littattafan Hadisi . Wasu kuma suna da asali na musamman na gari, kamar hasashen cewa Mahdi zai hau dokin shehun kuma ya kafa kubba a bisa kabarinsa bayan rasuwarsa. ^[5]

Dangane da abin da ya shafi al’adar Sufaye da suka saba da mabiyansa da abokan adawarsa, Muhammad Ahmad ya yi da’awar cewa wata majalisa ko hadra ta annabci ta nada shi Mahdi (Larabci: Al-Hadra Al-Nabawiyya, الحضرة النبوية). Hadra, a cikin al'adar Sufaye, taro ne na dukkan annabawa tun daga zamanin Adamu zuwa Muhammadu, da kuma yawancin Sufaye tsarkaka da aka yi imani da cewa sun kai matsayi mafi girma na kusanci da Ubangiji a lokacin rayuwarsu. Hadra tana karkashin jagorancin Muhammad, wanda aka fi sani da Sayyid al-Wujud, a gefensa kuma akwai Qutb guda bakwai, wanda mafi girmansu ana kiransa da Ghawth az-Zaman. Hadra kuma ita ce tushen akidu da dama na tsakiya game da Mahadi, ciki har da cewa an halicce shi ne daga haske mai tsarki da ke tsakiyar zuciyar Muhammadu, da kuma cewa dukkan halittu masu rai sun yarda da da'awar Mahadi tun daga haihuwarsa.

Muhammad Ahmad ya tsara Mahdiyya a matsayin komawa zuwa farkon Musulunci, lokacin da al'ummar musulmi, ko al'ummah, suka kasance tare a karkashin jagorancin Muhammadu da wadanda suka gaje shi. Bayan haka, don bambance mabiyansa da masu bin sauran mazhabobin Sufaye, Mahadi ya hana amfani da kalmar darwish (wanda aka fi sani da “dervish” a turance) wajen siffanta mabiyansa, ya maye gurbinsa da sunan Ansār, kalmar da Muhammad. amfani da mutanen Madina wadanda suka tarbe shi da mabiyansa bayan sun tashi daga Makka.

Martanin Malamai

Duk da shaharar da ya yi a wajen malaman Samaniyya da sauran mazhabobi, da kuma a cikin kabilun Sudan ta yamma, wasu daga cikin Malamai, ko kuma malaman addini, sun yi watsi da da'awar Muhammad Ahmad a matsayin Mahdi. Daga cikin fitattun masu sukarsa har da Malaman Sudan masu biyayya ga Sarkin Musulmi da gwamnatin Turco- Masar suka yi aiki. Misalai su ne Mufti Shakir al-Ghazi, wanda ya zauna a Majalisar daukaka kara a Khartoum, da kuma Qadi Ahmad al-Azhari a Kordofan. Wadannan masu suka sun yi taka-tsan-tsan kar su musanta ra’ayin Mahadi haka, sai dai su bata da’awar Muhammad Ahmad a kai. ^[6]

Sun yi nuni da cewa bayyanar Muhammad Ahmad bai dace da annabce-annabcen da aka shimfida a cikin littattafan Hadisi ba. Musamman ma, sun yi jayayya da muradun siyasar gwamnatin Turco-Masar da sarakunanta na Birtaniya, cewa bayyanarsa ba ta dace da "lokacin matsaloli" ba "lokacin da ƙasa ta cika da zalunci, zalunci, da ƙiyayya". ^[7]

Gaban tawaye

Lokacin da Gwamna Janar Muhammad Rauf Pasha a birnin Khartoum ya samu labarin ayyana ranar 29 ga watan Yunin 1881 da Muhammad Ahmad ya ayyana a matsayin Mahdi, ya yi imanin cewa mutumin zai gamsu da kudin fansho na gwamnati, sai ya aika wa Ahmad wasikar sada zumunci. Mahdi ya yi ta wayar tarho ya ba da amsa maras kyau, yana mai cewa, “Wanda bai yi imani da ni ba, takobi zai tsarkake shi”. ^[8]

Mohammed Rauf Pasha ya aika wata ‘yar karamar jam’iyya ta kama Mahdi a tsibirin Aba, amma a ranar 11 ga Agusta 1881 abin ya ci tura, kuma tashe tashen hankula a kudancin Sudan ta fara karuwa. ^[9] Rauf Pasha ya raina "affray" a cikin rahotonsa zuwa Alkahira, kuma ya aika da gwamnan Kordofan zuwa Aba Island tare da sojoji 1,000 don murkushe Mahdi. Da isarsu sai suka tarar Mahadi ya gudu zuwa kudu maso yamma. Sojoji sun bi shi, amma suka daina binsa a lokacin da ruwan sama na watan Satumba ya mamaye tituna da magudanar ruwa; suka koma El-Obeid . Mahdi ya kafa sabon sansani a tsaunukan Nuba . ^[8]

Mahdi da wani gungun mabiyansa, Ansar (masu taimako, da aka fi sani da " Darwish ") a yammaci, sun yi doguwar tafiya zuwa Kurdufan . A nan ne ya samu ma'aikata da dama, musamman daga Baqqara, da fitattun shugabanni irin su Sheikh Madibbo ibn Ali na Rizeigat da Abdallahi ibn Muhammad na kabilar Ta'aisha. Har ila yau, sun haɗu da Handoa Beja, waɗanda aka haɗa su zuwa Mahdi a 1883 da Osman Digna, kyaftin na Ansar a gabashin Sudan.

Juyin juya halin Mahdist ya samu goyon bayan yankunan arewaci da yammacin Sudan. Har ila yau, ta sami goyon baya sosai daga kabilar Nuer, Shilluk da Anuak na kudancin Sudan, baya ga kabilun Bahr Alghazal . Wannan goyon baya da aka yaɗa ya tabbatar da cewa juyin juya halin Mahdist juyin juya hali ne na ƙasa maimakon juyin juya hali na yanki. Baya ga hada kan kabilu daban-daban, juyin juya halin ya raba rabe-raben addini, duk kuwa da cewa tushensa na addini. Mahdi ya samu goyon bayan wadanda ba musulmi ba da musulmi baki daya. Wannan yana da tasiri mai mahimmanci ga cinikin bayi. Ya ci gaba da saba wa umarnin Musulunci na gargajiya, Mahadi ya yarda a bautar da Musulmi ‘yantattu, idan ba su goyi bayansa ba, ya kuma haramta bautar da wadanda ba musulmi ba, idan sun goyi bayansa.

A karshen shekara ta 1883, Ansar, dauke da mashi da takuba kawai, suka mamaye sojojin Masar 4,000 da ba su da nisa da El-Obeid, suka kuma kwace bindigu da alburusai. Mahadi ya bi bayan wannan nasara ta hanyar yiwa El-Obeid kawanya da yunwa da mika wuya bayan watanni hudu. Garin ya kasance hedkwatar Ansar tsawon shekaru goma.

Ansar, wanda yanzu yake da karfi 40,000, ya yi galaba a kan dakarun agaji na mutane 8,000 na Masar karkashin jagorancin wani jami'in Birtaniya William Hicks a kusa da Kashgil, a yakin Shaykan . Kashe Hicks kuma ya haifar da faduwar Darfur a hannun Ansar, wanda har zuwa lokacin Rudolf Carl von Slatin ya kare shi sosai. Jabal Qadir a kudanci ma an kai shi. Rabin yammacin Sudan yanzu ya tabbata a hannun Ansarī.

Nasarar da suka yi ta ƙarfafa Handoa, wanda a ƙarƙashin jagorancin Osman Digna ya shafe wasu ƙananan sojojin Masar a karkashin jagorancin Colonel Valentine Baker kusa da tashar jiragen ruwa na Suakin . An aika Manjo Janar Gerald Graham tare da rundunar sojojin Burtaniya 4,000 kuma suka ci Digna a El Teb a ranar 29 ga Fabrairu. Makonni biyu bayan haka ya sha wahala sosai a Tamai, kuma Graham ya janye sojojinsa.

Khartoum

Bayan muhawara mai yawa, Birtaniya sun yanke shawarar yin watsi da Sudan a watan Disamba 1883, suna rike da garuruwan arewa da dama da tashar ruwa ta Red Sea, kamar Khartoum, Kassala, Sannar, da Sawakin . Ficewar sojojin Masar da jami'ai, da sauran baki daga Sudan an sanya wa Janar Charles George Gordon, wanda aka sake nada shi a matsayin gwamna tare da umarnin komawa Khartoum da shirya janye sojojin Masar a can.

Zuwan Gordon

Gordon ya isa Khartoum a watan Fabrairun 1884. Da farko an tarbe shi da murna, domin da yawa daga cikin kabilun da ke kusa da su suna da sabani da Mahadi. Har yanzu ana buɗe zirga-zirga zuwa arewa kuma layukan telegraph ba su cika ba. Amma boren Beja jim kadan bayan zuwansa ya canza abubuwa sosai, tare da rage hanyoyin sadarwa zuwa masu gudu.

Gordon ya yi la'akari da hanyoyin da ke arewa da cewa suna da hatsarin gaske don fitar da garrison, don haka ya matsa lamba don aike da karin sojoji daga Alkahira don taimakawa wajen janyewar. Ya kuma ba da shawarar cewa a baiwa tsohon abokin gabarsa Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur, wani kwamandan soja mai kyau, a ba shi iko a Sudan ta hanyar da ta dace don samar da tikitin ga Ansar. London ta ki yarda da shawarwarin biyu, don haka Gordon ya shirya don faɗa.

A watan Maris na shekara ta 1884, Gordon ya yi ƙoƙari ya kai farmaki don share hanyar arewa zuwa Masar, amma da yawa daga cikin jami'an sojojin Masar sun wuce zuwa ga abokan gaba kuma sojojinsu sun gudu daga filin bayan sun yi harbi guda daya. Hakan ya tabbatar masa da cewa zai iya gudanar da ayyukan tsaro ne kawai, kuma ya koma birnin Khartoum don gina ayyukan tsaro.

A watan Afrilun 1884, Gordon ya yi nasarar kwashe kusan 2,500 na mutanen kasashen waje da suka sami damar yin tattaki zuwa arewa. Dakarunsa na tafi da gidanka karkashin Kanar Stewart sun dawo birnin Khartoum bayan faruwar al'amura da suka faru a lokacin da sojojin Masar 200 da ke karkashinsa suka juya da gudu ko kadan.

Siege

A wannan watan ne Ansar ya yiwa Khartoum kawanya, kuma Gordon ya katse gaba daya. Amma ayyukansa na tsaron da ya ƙunshi nakiyoyi da yawa sun tsoratar da Ansar har suka kasa kutsawa cikin garin. Da zarar ruwan ya tashi, Stewart ya yi amfani da jiragen ruwa a kogin Nilu don gudanar da wasu kananan fadace-fadace kuma a watan Agusta ya yi nasarar sake kwace Berber na dan kankanin lokaci. Amma an kashe Stewart jim kaɗan a wani faɗuwar rana daga Berber zuwa Dongola, gaskiyar da Gordon ya koya a cikin wasiƙar Mahdi da kansa.

Karkashin matsin lamba daga jama'a don tallafawa Gordon, Gwamnatin Burtaniya karkashin Firayim Minista Gladstone a ƙarshe ta umarci Lord Garnet Joseph Wolseley ya sauƙaƙa Gordon. An riga an tura shi Masar saboda yunkurin juyin mulkin da aka yi a can baya, kuma ya shirya runduna masu yawa, amma ya ci gaba da sauri. Da ya gane cewa za su ɗauki ɗan lokaci kafin su iso, Gordon ya matsa wa Wolseley ya aika da " shafi mai tashi " na sojojin raƙuma a cikin hamadar Bayyudah daga Wadi Halfa a ƙarƙashin umurnin Birgediya-Janar Sir Herbert Stewart . Haendoa Beja, ko " Fuzzy Wuzzies " sun kai wa wannan runduna hari, sau biyu, na farko a yakin Abu Klea kuma bayan kwana biyu kusa da Metemma. Sau biyu ana gudanar da filin na Birtaniyya kuma Mahaditawa sun yi ta fama da hasara mai yawa.

A Metemma, 100 miles (160 km) arewacin Khartoum, ma'aikatan gaba na Wolseley sun gamu da hudu daga cikin ma'aikatan jirgin Gordon, wanda aka aika daga kogin don samar da sufuri cikin gaggawa ga sojojin da suka fara sassautawa. Sun bai wa Wolseley sako daga Gordon yana iƙirarin cewa birnin na gab da faɗuwa. Bayan ɗan lokaci wani mai gudu ya kawo wani sako, yana mai cewa birnin na iya ɗaukar tsawon shekara guda. Yanke shawarar yin imani da na ƙarshe, ƙarfin ya tsaya yayin da suke gyara injina don ɗaukar ƙarin sojoji.

Faduwar Khartoum

A ƙarshe sun isa Khartoum a ranar 28 ga Janairu 1885, don gano garin ya faɗi kwanaki biyu kafin lokacin da aka kewaye Khartoum . Bayan kogin Nilu ya janye daga matakin ambaliya, ɗaya daga cikin pashas (jami'an Gordon), Faraz Pasha, ya buɗe kogin ya bar Ansar ya shigo. An karkashe sansanin sojojin, an kashe mazaje, aka mayar da mata da yara bayi. An kashe Gordon ne yana yakar mayakan Mahdi a kan matakan fadar, inda aka yi masa kutse tare da sare masa kai. Lokacin da Gordon ya kwance kansa a ƙafafun Mahadi, sai ya ba da umarnin a kafa kansa a tsakanin rassan bishiya “inda duk wanda ya wuce ta sai ya yi kallon wulakanci, yara za su iya jifansa da duwatsu, shahowar jeji kuma su yi ta zage-zage su dawafi. a sama." A lokacin da dakarun Wolseley suka isa birnin Khartoum, sun ja da baya bayan da suka yi yunkurin shiga tsakiyar garin a cikin jiragen ruwa, inda suka yi ta harbin bindiga.

Sojojin Mahdi sun ci gaba da samun nasarori. Kassala da Sannar sun fadi ba da daɗewa ba, kuma, a ƙarshen 1885, Ansar sun fara ƙaura zuwa yankunan kudancin Sudan. A duk Sudan, Suakin kawai, da sojojin Indiya suka ƙarfafa, da Wadi Halfa a kan iyakar arewa sun kasance a hannun Anglo-Masar.

Mutuwa da gado

Watanni shida bayan kama birnin Khartoum, Muhammad Ahmad ya rasu sakamakon kamuwa da cutar typhus . An binne shi a Omdurman kusa da kango na Khartoum. Mahadi ya shirya faruwar hakan, ya kuma zavi wakilai uku da za su maye gurbinsa.

Bayan kashin karshe da Turawan Ingila karkashin Janar Kitchener suka yi wa Khalifa a shekarar 1898, an rusa kabarin Muhammad Ahmad don hana shi zama wurin hada-hadar magoya bayansa. Aka jefar da ƙasusuwansa cikin kogin Nilu. An ce Kitchener ya riƙe kwanyarsa ^[10] kuma, a cikin kalmomin Winston Churchill, "ya ɗauke kan Mahdi a cikin gwangwanin kananzir a matsayin ganima". Wai an binne kokon kan a Wadi Halfa . Daga karshe aka sake gina kabarin.

Bayan haka

Gadon siyasa

Dan Muhammad Ahmad, Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, haifaffen bayan rasuwar mahaifinsa, wanda turawan ingila suka dauka da muhimmanci a matsayin mashahurin shugaban Mahdist, ya zama shugaban kungiyar neo-Mahdist a cikin Anglo-Masar Sudan . Wasu 'yan Sudan sun dauki Abd al-Rahman don cancantar zama Sarkin Sudan a nan gaba, yayin da kasar ta samu 'yancin kai, amma ya ki amincewa da lakabin saboda dalilai na ruhaniya. Abd al-Rahman ya dauki nauyin jam'iyyar siyasa ta Umma (Nation) a zamanin kafin da kuma bayan Sudan ta samu 'yancin kai a 1956.

A Sudan ta zamani, Muhammad Ahmad wani lokaci ana daukarsa a matsayin mafarin kishin kasar Sudan. Jam'iyyar Umma tana ikirarin zuriyarsa ce ta siyasa. Tsohon shugabansu, Imam Sadik al-Mahdi, shi ne jikan Muhammad Ahmad, kuma limamin Ansar, tsarin addini wanda ya yi mubaya'a ga Muhammad Ahmad. Sadiq al-Mahdi ya kasance shugaban dimokuradiyya kuma Firayim Minista na Sudan sau biyu: na farko a takaice a 1966 – 1967, sannan tsakanin 1986 zuwa 1989. Bugu da ari, Mahdi kakan dan wasan Sudan-Ingilishi Alexander Siddig, wanda sunan haihuwarsa Siddig El Tahir El Fadil El Siddig Abdurrahman Mohammed Ahmed Abdel Karim El Mahdi.

Litattafai

David Levering Lewis, "Khalifa, Khedive, and Kitchener" in The Race for Fashoda. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987. ISBN 1-55584-058-2
Winston Churchill, "The River War: An Account Of The Reconquest Of The Sudan", 1902, available at Project Gutenberg.
The Mahdiyah, 1884–98, at the Library of Congress-Country Studies
Fergus Nicoll, The Sword of the Prophet:The Mahdi of Sudan and the Death of General Gordon, The History Press Ltd, 2004,
John Obert Voll, "The Sudanese Mahdi: Frontier Fundamentalist", International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979), pp. 145–166
Shaked, Haim, The Life of the Sudanese Mahdi, Routledge, 1978,

Kara karantawa

Mohamed Hassan Fadlalla, Short History of Sudan, iUniverse, (2004), .
Mohamed Hassan Fadlalla, Matsalar Dar Fur, iUniverse, Inc. (2005), .
Mohamed Hassan Fadlalla, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya Intervention in Dar Fur, iUniverse, Inc. (2007), .
"Muhammad Ahmad b. 'Abdullahi b. Fahul b. 'Abd al-Wali b. ‘Abd Allāh al-Dunqulāwī”, a cikin: Adabin Larabci na Afirka Online, Babban Editan John O. Hunwick, RS O'Fahey. (An fara bugawa akan layi: 2016)
Dominic Green, 2011. Dauloli uku akan Kogin Nilu: Jihad na Victoria, 1869–1899 . ISBN 978-1-4516-3160-9.

Manazarta

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 Holt, P.M.: "The Mahdist State in Sudan, 1881–1898". Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. p. 45.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 Holt, P.M. The Mahdist State in Sudan, 1881–1898. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. pp 45 cf.
↑ Holt, 54.
↑ Warburg, Gabriel. Islam, Sectarianism and Politics in Sudan since the Mahdiyya. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003. pp. 30–42.
↑ Ibrahim, Ahmed Uthman. "Some Aspects of the Ideology of the Mahdiyya." See also PM Holt, pp 50 cf
↑ Islah and Tajdid.
↑ Kapteijns, The Religious Background of the Mahdi.
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 Green 2007.
↑ Beckett 2006.
↑ Undoing the Mahdiyya: British Colonialism as Religious Reform in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1898–1914 Error in Webarchive template: Empty url. by Noah Salomon (University of Chicago Divinity School)

[auto-1] 1.0 ^1.1 Holt, P.M.: "The Mahdist State in Sudan, 1881–1898". Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. p. 45.

[Holt-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Holt, P.M. The Mahdist State in Sudan, 1881–1898. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. pp 45 cf.

[3] Holt, 54.

[4] Warburg, Gabriel. Islam, Sectarianism and Politics in Sudan since the Mahdiyya. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003. pp. 30–42.

[5] Ibrahim, Ahmed Uthman. "Some Aspects of the Ideology of the Mahdiyya." See also PM Holt, pp 50 cf

[6] Islah and Tajdid.

[ReferenceA-7] Kapteijns, The Religious Background of the Mahdi.

[FOOTNOTEGreen2007-8] 8.0 ^8.1 Green 2007.

[FOOTNOTEBeckett2006-9] Beckett 2006.

[10] Undoing the Mahdiyya: British Colonialism as Religious Reform in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1898–1914 Error in Webarchive template: Empty url. by Noah Salomon (University of Chicago Divinity School)

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