Harsuna na Turai

Ƙara hanyoyin mahaɗar
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color-coded map of languages used throughout Europe
A color-coded map of languages used throughout Europe.

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Akwai harsuna sama da 250 na asali na Turai, kuma galibi suna cikin dangin harshen Indo-Turai. Daga cikin jimillar yawan jama'ar Turai miliyan 744 kamar na 2018, wasu 94% 'yan asalin harshen Indo-Turai ne. Manyan phyla uku mafi girma na dangin harshen Indo-Turai a Turai sune Romance, Jamusanci, da Slavic; suna da masu magana sama da miliyan 200 kowanne, kuma tare da kusan kashi 90% na mutanen Turai.

Ƙananan phyla na Indo-Turai da aka samu a Turai sun hada da Hellenic (Girkanci, c. 13 miliyan), Baltic (kimanin miliyan 7), Albaniya (kimanin miliyan 5), Celtic (kimanin miliyan 4), da Armeniya (c. 4). miliyan). Indo-Aryan, ko da yake babban dangi ne na Indo-Turai, yana da ƙananan adadin harsuna a Turai, da ƙananan adadin masu magana (Romani, c. 1.5 miliyan). Koyaya, yawancin harsunan Indo-Aryan waɗanda ba na asali ba a Turai ana magana da su a Turai a yau.[1]

Daga cikin kusan turawa miliyan 45 da ke magana da yarukan da ba na Indo-Turai ba, yawancinsu suna magana da yarukan cikin dangin Uralic ko Turkawa. Har yanzu ƙananan ƙungiyoyi - irin su Basque (keɓanta harshe), harsunan Semitic (Maltese, miliyan 0.5), da harsuna daban-daban na Caucasus - suna da ƙasa da 1% na yawan jama'ar Turai a cikinsu. Shige da fice ya kara yawan al'ummomin masu magana da harsunan Afirka da Asiya, wanda ya kai kusan kashi 4% na yawan jama'a.,[2] tare da Larabci da aka fi magana da su.

Harsuna biyar suna da fiye da masu magana da yaren asali miliyan 50 a Turai: Rashanci, Ingilishi, Faransanci, Italiyanci, da Jamusanci. Rashanci shine yaren asali da aka fi magana a Turai,[3] kuma Turanci yana da mafi yawan adadin masu magana a cikin duka, ciki har da wasu masu magana da Ingilishi miliyan 200 a matsayin harshe na biyu ko na waje. (Duba harshen Ingilishi a Turai.)

Harsunan Indo-Turai[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

See also: Indo-European languages and List of Indo-European languages

Iyalin harshen Indo-Turai sun fito ne daga Proto-Indo-Turai, wanda aka yi imanin an yi magana da shi shekaru dubbai da suka wuce. Masu iya magana na farko na yaren Indo-Turai da alama sun faɗaɗa cikin Turai tare da farkon shekarun Bronze, kusan shekaru 4,000 da suka gabata (al'adun Bell-Beaker).

Germanic[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

The present-day distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe:Template:Parabreak North Germanic languages
  Icelandic
  Faroese
  Norwegian
  Swedish
  Danish
West Germanic Languages
  English
  Scots
  Frisian
  Dutch
  Low German
  High German
Dots indicate areas where multilingualism is common.

The Germanic languages make up the predominant language family in Western, Northern and Central Europe. It is estimated that over 500 million Europeans are speakers of Germanic languagesTemplate:Fact, the largest groups being German (c. 95 million), English (c. 400 million)Template:Fact, Dutch (c. 24 million), Swedish (c. 10 million), Danish (c. 6 million), Norwegian (c. 5 million)[4] and Limburgish (c. 1.3 million).[Ana bukatan hujja]

There are two extant major sub-divisions: West Germanic and North Germanic. A third group, East Germanic, is now extinct; the only known surviving East Germanic texts are written in the Gothic language. West Germanic is divided into Anglo-Frisian (including English), Low German, Low Franconian (including Dutch) and High German (including Standard German).[5]

Anglo-Frisian[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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The Anglo-Frisian language family is now mostly represented by English (Anglic), descended from the Old English language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons:

The Frisian languages are spoken by about 400,000 (as of 2015) Frisians,[8][9] who live on the southern coast of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany. These languages include West Frisian, East Frisian (of which the only surviving dialect is Saterlandic) and North Frisian.[8]

Dutch[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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Dutch is spoken throughout the Netherlands, the northern half of Belgium, as well as the Nord-Pas de Calais region of France. The traditional dialects of the Lower Rhine region of Germany are linguistically more closely related to Dutch than to modern German. In Belgian and French contexts, Dutch is sometimes referred to as Flemish. Dutch dialects are numerous and varied.[10]

German[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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German is spoken throughout Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, much of Switzerland (including the northeast areas bordering on Germany and Austria), northern Italy (South Tyrol), Luxembourg, the East Cantons of Belgium and the Alsace and Lorraine regions of France.[11]

There are several groups of German dialects:

Low German[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Low German is spoken in various regions throughout Northern Germany and the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands. It is an official language in Germany. It may be separated into West Low German and East Low German.[13]

North Germanic (Scandinavian)[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

The North Germanic languages are spoken in Nordic countries and include Swedish (Sweden and parts of Finland), Danish (Denmark), Norwegian (Norway), Icelandic (Iceland), Faroese (Faroe Islands), and Elfdalian (in a small part of central Sweden).[Ana bukatan hujja]

English has a long history of contact with Scandinavian languages, given the immigration of Scandinavians early in the history of Britain, and shares various features with the Scandinavian languages.[14] Even so, especially Dutch and Swedish, but also Danish and Norwegian, have strong vocabulary connections to the German language.[15][16][17]

Limburgish[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Limburgish (also called Limburgan, Limburgian, or Limburgic) Is a West Germanic language spoken in the province of Limburg in the Netherlands, Belgium and neighboring regions of Germany. It is distinct from German and Dutch, but originates from areas near where both are spoken.[18]

Romance[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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The Distribution of the Romance languages, 20th century.

Roughly 215 million Europeans (primarily in Southern and Western Europe) are native speakers of Romance languages, the largest groups including:[Ana bukatan hujja]

French (c. 72 million), Italian (c. 65 million), Spanish (c. 40 million), Romanian (c. 24 million), Portuguese (c. 10 million), Catalan (c. 7 million), Sicilian (c. 5 million, also subsumed under Italian), Venetian (c. 4 million), Galician (c. 2 million), Sardinian (c. 1 million),[19][20][21] Occitan (c. 500,000), besides numerous smaller communities.

The Romance languages evolved from varieties of Vulgar Latin spoken in the various parts of the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. Latin was itself part of the (otherwise extinct) Italic branch of Indo-European.[Ana bukatan hujja] Romance languages are divided phylogenetically into Italo-Western, Eastern Romance (including Romanian) and Sardinian. The Romance-speaking area of Europe is occasionally referred to as Latin Europe.[22]

Italo-Western can be further broken down into the Italo-Dalmatian languages (sometimes grouped with Eastern Romance), including the Tuscan-derived Italian and numerous local Romance languages in Italy as well as Dalmatian, and the Western Romance languages. The Western Romance languages in turn separate into the Gallo-Romance languages, including Langues d'oïl such as French, the Francoprovencalic languages Arpitan and Faetar, the Rhaeto-Romance languages, and the Gallo-Italic languages; the Occitano-Romance languages, grouped with either Gallo-Romance or East Iberian, including Occitanic languages such as Occitan and Gardiol, and Catalan; Aragonese, grouped in with either Occitano-Romance or West Iberian, and finally the West Iberian languages, including the Astur-Leonese languages, the Galician-Portuguese languages, and the Castilian languages.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Slavic[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

See also: Slavic languages and Slavs
Political map of Europe with countries where the national language is Slavic:
  West Slavic languages
  East Slavic languages
  South Slavic languages

Slavic languages are spoken in large areas of Southern, Central and Eastern Europe. An estimated 315 million people speak of Slavic languages,[23] the largest groups being Russian (c. 110 million in European Russia and adjacent parts of Eastern Europe, Russian forming the largest linguistic community in Europe), Polish (c. 40.6 million[24]), Ukrainian (c. 33 million[25]), Serbo-Croatian (c. 21 million), Czech (c. 12 million[26]), Bulgarian (c. 7.7 million[27]), Slovak (c. 5 million[28]) Belarusian (c. 3.7 million[29]) and Slovene (c. 2.3 million[30]) and Macedonian (c. 2 million).[Ana bukatan hujja]

Phylogenetically, Slavic is divided into three subgroups:[31]

Wasu[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Historic distribution of the Baltic languages in the Baltic (simplified).
Continental Celtic languages had previously been spoken across Europe from Iberia and Gaul to Asia Minor, but became extinct in the first millennium CE.[49][50]

Harsunan da ba Indo-Turai ba[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Turkic[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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Distribution of Turkic languages in Eurasia

Uralic[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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Distribution of Uralic languages in Eurasia

Uralic language family is native to northern Eurasia. Finnic languages include Finnish (c. 5 million) and Estonian (c. 1 million), as well as smaller languages such as Kven (c. 8,000). Other languages of the Finno-Permic branch of the family include e.g. Mari (c. 400,000), and the Sami languages (c. 30,000).[Ana bukatan hujja]

The Ugric branch of the language family is represented in Europe by the Hungarian language (c. 13 million), historically introduced with the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin of the 9th century.[Ana bukatan hujja] The Samoyedic Nenets language is spoken in Nenets Autonomous Okrug of Russia, located in the far northeastern corner of Europe (as delimited by the Ural Mountains).[Ana bukatan hujja]

Wasu[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Harsunan alamar[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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Harsunan hannu dozin da yawa sun wanzu a duk faɗin Turai, tare da dangin yaren kurame mafi yaɗuwa shine harsunan Francosign, tare da harsunan da ake samu a ƙasashe daga Iberia zuwa Balkans da Baltic. Ingantattun bayanai na tarihi na yarukan alamomi da na tactile yana da wahala a samu, tare da tarihin al'umma da ke lura da wanzuwar al'ummomin da ke sanya hannu a cikin Turai ɗaruruwan shekaru da suka wuce. Harshen Alamar Biritaniya (BSL) da Harshen Alamar Faransanci (LSF) tabbas sune mafi dadewa da aka tabbatar, ana ci gaba da amfani da yarukan kurame. Tare da Harshen Alamar Jamus (DGS) bisa ga Ethnologue, waɗannan ukun suna da mafi yawan adadin masu sa hannun, kodayake ƙananan cibiyoyi kaɗan ne ke ɗaukar ƙididdiga masu dacewa kan yawan sa hannu na zamani, suna sa ingantattun bayanai da wuya a samu. [Ana bukatan hujja]

Musamman ma, ƙananan harsunan alamar turai suna da alaƙa kai tsaye tare da yawancin yarukan gida/na baka, baya ga daidaitaccen tuntuɓar harshe da aro, ma'ana a nahawu da harsunan kurame da na baka na Turai sun bambanta da juna. Saboda bambance-bambancen yanayi (na gani/ji), yawancin harsunan alamar suna suna don babbar ƙabila da ake magana da su, tare da kalmomin "harshen alamar", suna mai da abin da ake magana a yawancin Faransanci, Wallonia da Romandy a matsayin Harshen Alamar Faransanci. ko LSF don: langue des alamun française.

Gane harsunan da ba na baka ba ya bambanta sosai daga yanki zuwa yanki. Wasu ƙasashe suna ba da izini na doka, har ma da hukuma a matakin jiha, yayin da wasu ke ci gaba da danne su.

Ko da yake "akwai imani da yawa - a tsakanin Kurma da masu ilimin harshe - cewa akwai iyalai na harshe," ainihin dangantakar da ke tsakanin harsunan kurame yana da wuyar ganewa. Ka'idoji da hanyoyin da aka yi amfani da su a cikin ilimin harshe na tarihi don kwatanta iyalai na harshe don rubuce-rubuce da harsunan magana ba su da sauƙi a tsara su zuwa harsunan sa hannu. Wasu daga cikin fahimtar dangantakar harshen kurame na yanzu, duk da haka, suna ba da wasu ƙididdiga masu ma'ana game da yuwuwar iyalai na yaren kurame:

Harshen Francosign, kamar LSF, ASL, Harshen Alamar Holland, Harshen Alamar Flemish, da Harshen Alamar Italiyanci.

Harshen BANZSL, gami da Harshen Alamar Biritaniya (BSL), Harshen Alamar New Zealand (NZSL), Harshen Alamar Australiya (Auslan), da Harshen Kura na Sweden.

Yaren da ke ware, irin su Harshen Alamar Albaniya, Harshen Kurman Armeniya, Harshen Kurame na Caucasian, Harshen Alamar Sipaniya (LSE), Harshen Alamar Turkiyya (TİD), da wataƙila Harshen Kura na Ghardaia.

Yawancin sauran harsunan alamar, kamar Harshen Alamar Irish (ISL), ba su da tushe

Tarihin daidaitawa[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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Harshe da ainihi, matakan daidaitawa[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

In the Middle Ages the two most important defining elements of Europe were Christianitas and Latinitas.[58]

The earliest dictionaries were glossaries: more or less structured lists of lexical pairs (in alphabetical order or according to conceptual fields). The Latin-German (Latin-Bavarian) Abrogans was among the first. A new wave of lexicography can be seen from the late 15th century onwards (after the introduction of the printing press, with the growing interest in standardisation of languages).[Ana bukatan hujja]

The concept of the nation state began to emerge in the early modern period. Nations adopted particular dialects as their national language. This, together with improved communications, led to official efforts to standardise the national language, and a number of language academies were established: 1582 Accademia della Crusca in Florence, 1617 Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft in Weimar, 1635 Académie française in Paris, 1713 Real Academia Española in Madrid. Language became increasingly linked to nation as opposed to culture, and was also used to promote religious and ethnic identity: e.g. different Bible translations in the same language for Catholics and Protestants.[Ana bukatan hujja]

The first languages whose standardisation was promoted included Italian (questione della lingua: Modern Tuscan/Florentine vs. Old Tuscan/Florentine vs. Venetian → Modern Florentine + archaic Tuscan + Upper Italian), French (the standard is based on Parisian), English (the standard is based on the London dialect) and (High) German (based on the dialects of the chancellery of Meissen in Saxony, Middle German, and the chancellery of Prague in Bohemia ("Common German")). But several other nations also began to develop a standard variety in the 16th century.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Lingua franca[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Europe has had a number of languages that were considered linguae francae over some ranges for some periods according to some historians. Typically in the rise of a national language the new language becomes a lingua franca to peoples in the range of the future nation until the consolidation and unification phases. If the nation becomes internationally influential, its language may become a lingua franca among nations that speak their own national languages. Europe has had no lingua franca ranging over its entire territory spoken by all or most of its populations during any historical period. Some linguae francae of past and present over some of its regions for some of its populations are:

Yan tsirarun harshe[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Historical attitudes towards linguistic diversity are illustrated by two French laws: the Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539), which said that every document in France should be written in French (neither in Latin nor in Occitan) and the Loi Toubon (1994), which aimed to eliminate anglicisms from official documents. States and populations within a state have often resorted to war to settle their differences. There have been attempts to prevent such hostilities: two such initiatives were promoted by the Council of Europe, founded in 1949, which affirms the right of minority language speakers to use their language fully and freely.[65] The Council of Europe is committed to protecting linguistic diversity. Currently all European countries except France, Andorra and Turkey have signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, while Greece, Iceland and Luxembourg have signed it, but have not ratified it; this framework entered into force in 1998. Another European treaty, the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, was adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe: it entered into force in 1998, and while it is legally binding for 24 countries, France, Iceland, Italy, North Macedonia, Moldova and Russia have chosen to sign without ratifying the convention.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Scripts[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Alphabets used in European national languages:
  Greek
  Greek & Latin
  Latin
  Latin & Cyrillic
  Cyrillic
  Georgian
  Armenian

The main scripts used in Europe today are the Latin and Cyrillic.[66]

The Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician alphabet, and Latin was derived from the Greek via the Old Italic alphabet. In the Early Middle Ages, Ogham was used in Ireland and runes (derived from Old Italic script) in Scandinavia. Both were replaced in general use by the Latin alphabet by the Late Middle Ages. The Cyrillic script was derived from the Greek with the first texts appearing around 940 AD.[Ana bukatan hujja]

See also: Antiqua–Fraktur dispute

Around 1900 there were mainly two typeface variants of the Latin alphabet used in Europe: Antiqua and Fraktur. Fraktur was used most for German, Estonian, Latvian, Norwegian and Danish whereas Antiqua was used for Italian, Spanish, French, Polish, Portuguese, English, Romanian, Swedish and Finnish. The Fraktur variant was banned by Hitler in 1941, having been described as "Schwabacher Jewish letters".[67] Other scripts have historically been in use in Europe, including Phoenician, from which modern Latin letters descend, Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs on Egyptian artefacts traded during Antiquity, various runic systems used in Northern Europe preceding Christianisation, and Arabic during the era of the Ottoman Empire.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Hungarian rovás was used by the Hungarian people in the early Middle Ages, but it was gradually replaced with the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet when Hungary became a kingdom, though it was revived in the 20th century and has certain marginal, but growing area of usage since then.[Ana bukatan hujja]

European Union[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Template:Main The European Union(ya zuwa 2021) yana da ƙasashe mambobi 27 waɗanda ke lissafin yawan jama'a miliyan 447, ko kusan kashi 60% na yawan mutanen Turai. [Ana bukatan hujja]

Tarayyar Turai ta ayyana ta hanyar yarjejeniya tare da kasashe membobin yaruka 24 a matsayin "hukumance da aiki": Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estoniya, Finnish, Faransanci, Jamusanci, Girkanci, Hungarian, Irish, Italiyanci, Latvia, Lithuanian, Maltese, Yaren mutanen Poland, Fotigal, Romanian, Slovak, Sloveniya, Sifen da Yaren mutanen Sweden. Wannan nadi yana ba ƙasashe membobi “hakkoki” guda biyu: ƙasa memba na iya sadarwa da EU a cikin kowane yaren da aka keɓe, kuma su duba “dokokin EU da sauran takaddun dokoki” a cikin wannan yaren.

Ƙungiyar Tarayyar Turai da Majalisar Turai sun kasance suna haɗin gwiwa a cikin ilimin jama'a a cikin harsuna don "ingancin ilimin harsuna" a tsakanin ƙasashe membobin EU. Daftarin hadin gwiwa, "Tsarin Magana na gama-gari na Turai don Harsuna: Koyo, Koyarwa, Ƙimar (CEFR)", ƙa'idar ilimi ce da ke bayyana "ƙwararrun da ake buƙata don sadarwa" da ilimin da ke da alaƙa don fa'idar malamai wajen kafa shirye-shiryen ilimi. A cikin wani bincike mai zaman kansa na shekara ta 2005 wanda Babban Darakta Janar na Ilimi da Al'adu na EU ya nema dangane da yadda ake magana da manyan harsunan Turai a cikin ƙasashe mambobi. An buga sakamakon a cikin takardar 2006, "Turawa da Harsunansu", ko "Eurobarometer 243". A cikin wannan binciken, ƙididdiga dacewaTemplate:Clarify[Shin kuna nufin "mahimmanci"?] samfurori na yawan jama'a a kowace ƙasa an nemi su cika fom na bincike game da harsunan da suke magana da isassun ƙwarewa "don samun damar yin magana".[68]

Jerin Harsuna[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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The following is a table of European languages. The number of speakers as a first or second language (L1 and L2 speakers) listed are speakers in Europe only;[nb 1] see list of languages by number of native speakers and list of languages by total number of speakers for global estimates on numbers of speakers.[Ana bukatan hujja]

The list is intended to include any language variety with an ISO 639 code. However, it omits sign languages. Because the ISO-639-2 and ISO-639-3 codes have different definitions, this means that some communities of speakers may be listed more than once. For instance, speakers of Bavarian are listed both under "Bavarian" (ISO-639-3 code bar) as well as under "German" (ISO-639-2 code de).[69]

Name ISO-
639 		Classification Speakers in Europe Official status
Native Total National[nb 2] Regional
Abaza abq Northwest Caucasian, Abazgi 49,800[70] Karachay-Cherkessia (Russia)
Adyghe ady Northwest Caucasian, Circassian 117,500[71] Adygea (Russia)
Aghul agx Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 29,300[72] Dagestan (Russia)
Akhvakh akv Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 210[73]
Albanian (Shqip)
Arbëresh
Arvanitika
 sq Indo-European 5,367,000[74]
5,877,100[75] (Balkans)		 Albania, Kosovo[nb 3], North Macedonia Italy, Arbëresh dialect: Sicily, Calabria,[76] Apulia, Molise, Basilicata, Abruzzo, Campania
Montenegro (Ulcinj, Tuzi)
Andi ani Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 5,800[77]
Aragonese an Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 25,000[78] 55,000[79] Northern Aragon (Spain)[nb 4]
Archi acq Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 970[80]
Aromanian rup Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 114,000[81] North Macedonia (Kruševo)
Asturian (Astur-Leonese) ast Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 351,791[82] 641,502[82] Asturias[nb 4]
Avar av Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 760,000 Dagestan (Russia)
Azerbaijani az Turkic, Oghuz 500,000[83] Azerbaijan Dagestan (Russia)
Bagvalal kva Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 1,500[84]
Bashkir ba Turkic, Kipchak 1,221,000[85] Bashkortostan (Russia)
Basque eu Basque 750,000[86] Basque Country: Basque Autonomous Community, Navarre (Spain), French Basque Country (France)[nb 4]
Bavarian bar Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Bavarian 14,000,000[87] Austria (as German) South Tyrol
Belarusian be Indo-European, Slavic, East 3,300,000[88] Belarus
Bezhta kap Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 6,800[89]
Bosnian bs Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 2,500,000[90] Bosnia and Herzegovina Kosovo[nb 3], Montenegro
Botlikh bph Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 210[91]
Breton br Indo-European, Celtic, Brittonic 206,000[92] None, de facto status in Brittany (France)
Bulgarian bg Indo-European, Slavic, South, Eastern 7,800,000[93] Bulgaria Mount Athos (Greece)
Catalan ca Indo-European, Romance, Western, Occitano-Romance 4,000,000[94] 10,000,000[95] Andorra Balearic Islands (Spain), Catalonia (Spain), Valencian Community (Spain), easternmost Aragon (Spain)[nb 4], Pyrénées-Orientales (France)[nb 4], Alghero (Italy)
Chamalal cji Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 500[96]
Chechen ce Northeast Caucasian, Nakh 1,400,000[97] Chechnya & Dagestan (Russia)
Chuvash cv Turkic, Oghur 1,100,000[98] Chuvashia (Russia)
Cimbrian cim Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Bavarian 400[99]
Cornish kw Indo-European, Celtic, Brittonic 563[100] Cornwall (United Kingdom)[nb 4]
Corsican co Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 30,000[101] 125,000[101] Corsica (France), Sardinia (Italy)
Crimean Tatar crh Turkic, Kipchak 480,000[102] Crimea (Ukraine)
Croatian hr Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 5,600,000[103] Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia Burgenland (Austria), Vojvodina (Serbia)
Czech cs Indo-European, Slavic, West, Czech–Slovak 10,600,000[104] Czech Republic
Danish da Indo-European, Germanic, North 5,500,000[105] Denmark Faroe Islands (Denmark), Schleswig-Holstein (Germany)[106]
Dargwa dar Northeast Caucasian, Dargin 490,000[107] Dagestan (Russia)
Dutch nl Indo-European, Germanic, West, Low Franconian 22,000,000[108] Belgium, Netherlands
Elfdalian ovd Indo-European, Germanic, North 2000
Emilian egl Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic
English en Indo-European, Germanic, West, Anglo-Frisian, Anglic 63,000,000[109] 260,000,000[110] Ireland, Malta, United Kingdom
Erzya myv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Mordvinic 120,000[111] Mordovia (Russia)
Estonian et Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 1,165,400[112] Estonia
Extremaduran ext Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 200,000[113]
Fala fax Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 11,000[114]
Faroese fo Indo-European, Germanic, North 66,150[115] Faroe Islands (Denmark)
Finnish fi Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 5,400,000[116] Finland Sweden, Norway, Republic of Karelia (Russia)
Franco-Provençal (Arpitan) frp Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance 140,000[117] Aosta Valley (Italy)
French fr Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 81,000,000[118] 210,000,000[110] Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Jersey Aosta Valley[119] (Italy
Frisian fry
frr
stq		 Indo-European, Germanic, West, Anglo-Frisian 470,000[120] Friesland (Netherlands), Schleswig-Holstein (Germany)[121]
Friulan fur Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 600,000[122] Friuli (Italy)
Gagauz gag Turkic, Oghuz 140,000[123] Gagauzia (Moldova)
Galician gl Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 2,400,000[124] Galicia (Spain), Eo-Navia (Asturias)[nb 4], Bierzo (Province of León)[nb 4] and Western Sanabria (Province of Zamora)[nb 4]
German de Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 97,000,000[125] 170,000,000[110] Austria, Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Switzerland South Tyrol,[126] Friuli-Venezia Giulia[127] (Italy)
Godoberi gin Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 130[128]
Greek el Indo-European, Hellenic 13,500,000[129] Cyprus, Greece Albania (Himara, Finiq, Dervican and other southern townships)
Hinuq gin Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 350[130]
Hungarian hu Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Ugric 13,000,000[131] Hungary Burgenland (Austria), Vojvodina (Serbia), Romania, Slovakia, Subcarpathia (Ukraine), Prekmurje, (Slovenia)
Hunzib bph Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 1,400[132]
Icelandic is Indo-European, Germanic, North 330,000[133] Iceland
Ingrian izh Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 120[134]
Ingush inh Northeast Caucasian, Nakh 300,000[135] Ingushetia (Russia)
Irish ga Indo-European, Celtic, Goidelic 240,000[136] 2,000,000 Ireland Northern Ireland (United Kingdom)
Istriot ist Indo-European, Romance 900[137]
Istro-Romanian ruo Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 1,100[138]
Italian it Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 65,000,000[139] 82,000,000[110] Italy, San Marino, Switzerland, Vatican City Istria County (Croatia), Slovenian Istria (Slovenia)
Italiot Greek mis Indo-European, Hellenic, Greek, Attic-Ionic 20,000 native speakers in 1981[140] 50,000 Calabria[141] (Bovesia), ApuliaTemplate:CN (Salento), (Italy)
Judeo-Italian itk Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 250[142]
Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) lad Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 320,000[143] few[144] Bosnia and Herzegovina[nb 4], France[nb 4]
Kabardian kbd Northwest Caucasian, Circassian 530,000[145] Kabardino-Balkaria & Karachay-Cherkessia (Russia)
Kaitag xdq Northeast Caucasian, Dargin 30,000[146]
Kalmyk xal Mongolic 80,500[147] Kalmykia (Russia)
Karata kpt Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 260[148]
Karelian krl Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 36,000[149] Republic of Karelia (Russia)
Karachay-Balkar krc Turkic, Kipchak 300,000[150] Kabardino-Balkaria & Karachay-Cherkessia (Russia)
Kashubian csb Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic 50,000[151] Poland
Kazakh kk Turkic, Kipchak 1,000,000[152] Kazakhstan Astrakhan Oblast (Russia)
Khwarshi khv Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 1,700[153]
Komi kv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Permic 220,000[154] Komi Republic (Russia)
Kubachi ugh Northeast Caucasian, Dargin 7,000[155]
Kumyk kum Turkic, Kipchak 450,000[156] Dagestan (Russia)
Kven fkv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 2000-8000 Norway
Lak lbe Northeast Caucasian, Lak 152,050[157] Dagestan (Russia)
Latin la Indo-European, Italic, Latino-Faliscan extinct few[158] Vatican City
Latvian lv Indo-European, Baltic 1,750,000[159] Latvia
Lezgin lez Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 397,000[160] Dagestan (Russia)
Ligurian lij Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 500,000[161] Monaco (Monégasque dialect is the "national language") Liguria (Italy), Carloforte and Calasetta (Sardinia, Italy)[162][163]
Limburgish li
lim		 Indo-European, Germanic, West, Low Franconian 1,300,000 (2001)[164] Limburg (Belgium), Limburg (Netherlands)
Lithuanian lt Indo-European, Baltic 3,000,000[165] Lithuania
Livonian liv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 1[166] 210[167] Latvia[nb 4]
Lombard lmo Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 3,600,000[168] Lombardy (Italy)
Low German (Low Saxon) nds
wep		 Indo-European, Germanic, West 1,000,000[169] 2,600,000[169] Schleswig-Holstein (Germany)[170]
Ludic lud Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 300[171]
Luxembourgish lb Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 336,000[172] 386,000[172] Luxembourg Wallonia (Belgium)
Macedonian mk Indo-European, Slavic, South, Eastern 1,400,000[173] North Macedonia
Mainfränkisch vmf Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper 4,900,000[174]
Maltese mt Semitic, Arabic 520,000[175] Malta
Manx gv Indo-European, Celtic, Goidelic 230[176] 2,300[177] Isle of Man
Mari chm
mhr
mrj		 Uralic, Finno-Ugric 500,000[178] Mari El (Russia)
Megleno-Romanian ruq Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 3,000[179]
Minderico drc Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 500[180]
Mirandese mwl Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 15,000[181] Miranda do Douro (Portugal)
Moksha mdf Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Mordvinic 2,000[182] Mordovia (Russia)
Montenegrin cnr Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 240,700[183] Montenegro
Neapolitan nap Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 5,700,000[184] Campania (Italy)[185]
Nenets yrk Uralic, Samoyedic 4,000[186] Nenets Autonomous Okrug (Russia)
Nogai nog Turkic, Kipchak 87,000[187] Dagestan (Russia)
Norman nrf Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 50,000[188] Guernsey (United Kingdom), Jersey (United Kingdom)
Norwegian no Indo-European, Germanic, North 5,200,000[189] Norway
Occitan oc Indo-European, Romance, Western, Occitano-Romance 500,000[190] Catalonia (Spain)[nb 5]
Ossetian os Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Eastern 450,000[191] North Ossetia-Alania (Russia), South Ossetia
Palatinate German pfl Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 1,000,000[192]
Picard pcd Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 200,000[193] Wallonia (Belgium)
Piedmontese pms Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 1,600,000[194] Piedmont (Italy)[195]
Polish pl Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic 38,500,000[196] Poland
Portuguese pt Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 10,000,000[197] Portugal
Rhaeto-Romance fur
lld
roh		 Indo-European, Romance, Western 370,000[198] Switzerland Veneto Belluno, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, South Tyrol,[199] & Trentino (Italy)
Ripuarian (Platt) ksh Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 900,000[200]
Romagnol rgn Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic
Romani rom Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western 1,500,000[201] Kosovo[nb 3][202]
Romanian ro Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 24,000,000[203] 28,000,000[204] Moldova, Romania Mount Athos (Greece), Vojvodina (Serbia)
Russian ru Indo-European, Slavic, East 106,000,000[205] 160,000,000[205] Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia Mount Athos (Greece), Gagauzia (Moldova), Left Bank of the Dniester (Moldova), Ukraine
Rusyn rue Indo-European, Slavic, East 70,000[206]
Rutul rut Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 36,400[207] Dagestan (Russia)
Sami se Uralic, Finno-Ugric 23,000[208] Norway Sweden, Finland
Sardinian sc Indo-European, Romance 1,350,000[209] Sardinia (Italy)
Scots sco Indo-European, Germanic, West, Anglo-Frisian, Anglic 110,000[210] Scotland (United Kingdom), County Donegal (Republic of Ireland), Northern Ireland (United Kingdom)
Scottish Gaelic gd Indo-European, Celtic, Goidelic 57,000[211] Scotland (United Kingdom)
Serbian sr Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 9,000,000[212] Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo[nb 3], Serbia Croatia, Mount Athos (Greece), North Macedonia, Montenegro
Sicilian scn Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 4,700,000[213] Sicily (Italy)
Silesian szl Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic 522,000[214]
Silesian German sli Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 11,000[215]
Slovak sk Indo-European, Slavic, West, Czech–Slovak 5,200,000[216] Slovakia Vojvodina (Serbia), Czech Republic
Slovene sl Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western 2,100,000[217] Slovenia Friuli-Venezia Giulia[127] (Italy)
Sorbian (Wendish) wen Indo-European, Slavic, West 20,000[218] Brandenburg & Sachsen (Germany)[219]
Spanish es Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 47,000,000[220] 76,000,000[110] Spain Gibraltar (United Kingdom)
Swabian German swg Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Alemannic 820,000[221]
Swedish sv Indo-European, Germanic, North 11,100,000[222] 13,280,000[222] Sweden, Finland, Åland and Estonia
Swiss German gsw Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Alemannic 5,000,000[223] Switzerland (as German)
Tabasaran tab Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 126,900[224] Dagestan (Russia)
Tat ttt Indo-European, Iranian, Western 30,000[225] Dagestan (Russia)
Tatar tt Turkic, Kipchak 4,300,000[226] Tatarstan (Russia)
Tindi tin Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 2,200[227]
Tsez ddo Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 13,000[228]
Turkish tr Turkic, Oghuz 15,752,673[229] Turkey, Cyprus Northern Cyprus
Udmurt udm Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Permic 340,000[230] Udmurtia (Russia)
Ukrainian uk Indo-European, Slavic, East 32,600,000[231] Ukraine Left Bank of the Dniester (Moldova)
Upper Saxon sxu Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 2,000,000[232]
Vepsian vep Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 1,640[233] Republic of Karelia (Russia)
Venetian vec Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 3,800,000[234] Veneto (Italy)[235]
Võro vro Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 87,000[236] Võru County (Estonia)
Votic vot Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 21[237]
Walloon wa Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 600,000[238] Wallonia (Belgium)
Walser German wae Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Alemannic 20,000[239]
Welsh cy Indo-European, Celtic, Brittonic 562,000[240] 750,000 Wales (United Kingdom)
Wymysorys wym Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 70[241]
Yenish yec Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 16,000[242] Switzerland[nb 4]
Yiddish yi Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 600,000[243] Bosnia and Herzegovina[nb 4], Netherlands[nb 4], Poland[nb 4], Romania[nb 4], Sweden[nb 4], Ukraine[nb 4]
Zeelandic zea Indo-European, Germanic, West, Low Franconian 220,000[244]

Harsuna da ake magana da su a Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Jojiya, da Turkiyya[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

There are various definitions of Europe, which may or may not include all or parts of Turkey, Cyprus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. For convenience, the languages and associated statistics for all five of these countries are grouped together on this page, as they are usually presented at a national, rather than subnational, level.

Name ISO-
639 		Classification Speakers in expanded geopolitical Europe Official status
L1 L1+L2 National[nb 6] Regional
Abkhaz ab Northwest Caucasian, Abazgi Abkhazia/Georgia:[245] 191,000[246]
Turkey: 44,000[247]		 Abkhazia Abkhazia
Adyghe (West Circassian) ady Northwest Caucasian, Circassian Turkey: 316,000[247]
Albanian sq Indo-European, Albanian Turkey: 66,000 (Tosk)[247]
Arabic ar Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, West Turkey: 2,437,000 Not counting post-2014 Syrian refugees[247]
Armenian hy Indo-European, Armenian Armenia: 3 million[248]
Azerbaijan: 145,000 [Ana bukatan hujja]
Georgia: around 0.2 million ethnic Armenians (Abkhazia: 44,870[249])
Turkey: 61,000[247]
Cyprus: 668[250]:3		 Armenia
Azerbaijan		 Cyprus
Azerbaijani az Turkic, Oghuz Azerbaijan 9 million[Ana bukatan hujja][251]
Turkey: 540,000[247]
Georgia 0.2 million		 Azerbaijan
Batsbi bbl Northeast Caucasian, Nakh Georgia: 500[252]Template:Update inline
Bulgarian bg Indo-European, Slavic, South Turkey: 351,000[247]
Crimean Tatar crh Turkic, Kipchak Turkey: 100,000[247]
Georgian ka Kartvelian, Karto-Zan Georgia: 3,224,696[253]
Turkey: 151,000[247]
Azerbaijan: 9,192 ethnic Georgians[254]		 Georgia
Greek el Indo-European, Hellenic Cyprus: 679,883[255]:2.2
Turkey: 3,600[247]		 Cyprus
Juhuri jdt Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Southwest Azerbaijan: 24,000 (1989)[256]Template:Update inline
Kurdish kur Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Northwest Turkey: 15 million[257]
Azerbaijan: 9,000[Ana bukatan hujja]
Kurmanji kmr Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Southwest Turkey: 8.13 million[258]
Armenia: 33,509[259]
Georgia: 14,000 [Ana bukatan hujja]		 Armenia
Laz lzz Kartvelian, Karto-Zan, Zan Turkey: 20,000[260]
Georgia: 2,000[260]
Megleno-Romanian ruq Indo-European, Italic, Romance, East Turkey: 4–5,000[261]
Mingrelian xmf Kartvelian, Karto-Zan, Zan Georgia (including Abkhazia): 344,000[262]
Pontic Greek pnt Indo-European, Hellenic Turkey: greater than 5,000[263]
Armenia: 900 ethnic Caucasus Greeks[264]
Georgia: 5,689 Caucasus Greeks[253]
Romani language and Domari language rom, dmt Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indic Turkey: 500,000[247]
Russian ru Indo-European, Balto-Slavic, Slavic Armenia: 15,000[265]
Azerbaijan: 250,000[265]
Georgia: 130,000[265]		 Armenia: about 0.9 million[266]
Azerbaijan: about 2.6 million[266]
Georgia: about 1 million[266]
Cyprus: 20,984[267]		 Abkhazia
South Ossetia		 Armenia
Azerbaijan
Svan sva Kartvelian, Svan Georgia (incl. Abkhazia): 30,000[268]
Tat ttt Indo-European, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Southwest Azerbaijan: 10,000[269]Template:Update inline
Turkish tr Turkic, Oghuz Turkey: 66,850,000[247]
Cyprus: 1,405[270] + 265,100 in the North[271]		 Turkey
Cyprus
Northern Cyprus

Al'ummomin ƙaura[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Recent (post–1945) immigration to Europe introduced substantial communities of speakers of non-European languages.[2]

The largest such communities include Arabic speakers (see Arabs in Europe) and Turkish speakers (beyond European Turkey and the historical sphere of influence of the Ottoman Empire, see Turks in Europe).[272] Armenians, Berbers, and Kurds have diaspora communities of c. 1–2,000,000 each. The various languages of Africa and languages of India form numerous smaller diaspora communities.

List of the largest immigrant languages
Name ISO 639 Classification Native Ethnic diaspora
Arabic ar Afro-Asiatic, Semitic 5,000,000[273] 12,000,000[274]
Turkish tr Turkic, Oghuz 3,000,000[275] 7,000,000[276]
Armenian hy Indo-European 1,000,000[277] 3,000,000[278]
Kurdish ku Indo-European, Iranian, Western 600,000[279] 1,000,000[280]
Bengali–Assamese bn as syl Indo-European, Indo-Aryan 600,000[281] 1,000,000[282]
Azerbaijani az Turkic, Oghuz 500,000[283] 700,000[284]
Kabyle kab Afro-Asiatic, Berber 500,000[285] 1,000,000[286]
Chinese zh Sino-Tibetan, Sinitic 300,000[287] 2,000,000[288]
Urdu ur Indo-European, Indo-Aryan 300,000[289] 1,800,000[290]
Uzbek uz Turkic, Karluk 300,000[291] 2,000,000[292]
Persian fa Indo-European, Iranian, Western 300,000[293] 400,000[294]
Punjabi pa Indo-European, Indo-Aryan 300,000[295] 700,000[296]
Gujarati gu Indo-European, Indo-Aryan 200,000[297] 600,000[298]
Tamil ta Dravidian 200,000[299] 500,000[300]
Somali so Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic 200,000[301] 400,000[302]

Don Karatu[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Template:Portal

Duba[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  1. ↑ "Europe" is taken as a geographical term, defined by the conventional Europe-Asia boundary along the Caucasus and the Urals. Estimates for populations geographically in Europe are given for transcontinental countries.
  2. ↑ Sovereign states, defined as United Nations member states and observer states. 'Recognised minority language' status is not included.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 The Republic of Kosovo is a partially recognized state (recognized by 111 out of 193 UN member states as of 2017).
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 Recognized and protected, but not official.
  5. ↑ The Aranese dialect, in Val d'Aran county.
  6. ↑ Sovereign states, defined as United Nations member states and observer states. 'Recognised minority language' status is not included.

Manazarta[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  1. ↑ "European Day of Languages > Facts > Language Facts". edl.ecml.at. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "International migrant stock: By destination and origin". United Nations.
  3. ↑ Emery, Chad (15 December 2022). "34 of the Most Spoken Languages in Europe: Key Facts and Figures". Langoly (in Turanci). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  4. ↑ Sipka, Danko (2022). "The Geography of Words" (PDF). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  5. ↑ Versloot, Arjen; Adamczyk, Elzbieta (1 January 2017). "The Geography and Dialects of Old Saxon: River-basin communication networks and the distributional patterns of North Sea Germanic features in Old Saxon". Frisians and Their North Sea Neighbours: 125.
  6. ↑ "The Evolution of English: Contribution of European Languages". www.98thpercentile.com (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 December 2023.
  7. ↑ "Scots language | History, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in Turanci). 5 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Kuipers-Zandberg, Helga; Kircher, Ruth (1 November 2020). "The Objective and Subjective Ethnolinguistic Vitality of West Frisian: Promotion and Perception of a Minority Language in the Netherlands". Sustainable Multilingualism (in Turanci). 17 (1): 1–25. doi:10.2478/sm-2020-0011. S2CID 227129146.
  9. ↑ Winter, Christoph (21 December 2022), "Frisian", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics (in Turanci), doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.938, ISBN 978-0-19-938465-5, retrieved 21 May 2023
  10. ↑ "Dutch language | Definition, Origin, History, Countries, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in Turanci). 15 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  11. ↑ "German, Standard | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All) (in Turanci). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  12. ↑ "Origins of Yiddish". sites.santafe.edu. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  13. ↑ Russ, Charles (13 September 2013). The Dialects of Modern German. doi:10.4324/9781315001777. ISBN 9781315001777.
  14. ↑ "Linguist makes sensational claim: English is a Scandinavian language". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
  15. ↑ "Linguistic variety in the Nordics". nordics.info (in Turanci). 21 February 2019. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
  16. ↑ Gooskens, Charlotte; Kürschner, Sebastian; Heuven, Vincent J. van (4 August 2021). "The role of loanwords in the intelligibility of written Danish among Swedes". Nordic Journal of Linguistics (in Turanci). 45 (1): 4–29. doi:10.1017/S0332586521000111. hdl:1887/3205273. ISSN 0332-5865.
  17. ↑ Gooskens, Charlotte; van Heuven, Vincent J.; Golubović, Jelena; Schüppert, Anja; Swarte, Femke; Voigt, Stefanie (3 April 2018). "Mutual intelligibility between closely related languages in Europe". International Journal of Multilingualism (in Turanci). 15 (2): 169–193. doi:10.1080/14790718.2017.1350185. hdl:1887/79190. ISSN 1479-0718.
  18. ↑ "Limburgish- Limburgse taal & Limburgs dialect | Limburgs.org". Limbörgse Academie (in Turanci). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  19. ↑ Ti Alkire; Carol Rosen (2010). Romance languages: a Historical Introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 3.
  20. ↑ Sergio Lubello (2016). Manuale Di Linguistica Italiana, Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter. p. 499.
  21. ↑ This includes all of the varieties of Sardinian, written with any orthography (the LSC, used for all of Sardinian, or the Logudorese, Nugorese and Campidanese orthographies, only used for some dialects of it) but does not include Gallurese and Sassarese, that even though they have sometimes been included in a supposed Sardinian "macro-language" are actually considered by all Sardinian linguists two different transitional languages between Sardinian and Corsican (or, in the case of Gallurese, are sometimes classified as a variant of Corsican). For Gallurese: ATTI DEL II CONVEGNO INTERNAZIONALE DI STUDI Ciurrata di la Linga Gadduresa, 2014 , for Sassarese: Maxia, Mauro (2010). Studi sardo-corsi. Dialettologia e storia della lingua tra le due isole (in Italiyanci). Sassari: Taphros. p. 58. La tesi che individua nel sassarese una base essenzialmente toscana deve essere riesaminata alla luce delle cospicue migrazioni corse che fin dall'età giudicale interessarono soprattutto il nord della Sardegna. In effetti, che il settentrione della Sardegna, almeno dalla metà del Quattrocento, fosse interessato da un forte presenza corsa si può desumere da diversi punti di osservazione. Una delle prove più evidenti è costituita dall'espressa citazione che di questo fenomeno fa il cap. 42 del secondo libro degli Statuti del comune di Sassari, il quale fu aggiunto nel 1435 o subito dopo. Se si tiene conto di questa massiccia presenza corsa e del fatto che la presenza pisana nel regno di Logudoro cessò definitivamente entro il Duecento, l'origine del fondo toscano non andrà attribuita a un influsso diretto del pisano antico ma del corso che rappresenta, esso stesso, una conseguenza dell'antica toscanizzazione della Corsica). They are legally considered two different languages by the Sardinian Regional Government too (Autonomous Region of Sardinia (15 October 1997). "Legge Regionale 15 ottobre 1997, n. 26" (in Italiyanci). pp. Art. 2, paragraph 4. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2008.).
  22. ↑ Friedman, Lawrence; Perez-Perdomo, Rogelio (2003). Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe. Stanford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-8047-6695-9.
  23. ↑ "Slavic languages | List, Definition, Origin, Map, Tree, History, & Number of Speakers | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in Turanci). 2 November 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  24. ↑ "Polish | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All) (in Turanci). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  25. ↑ "Ukrainian | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All) (in Turanci). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  26. ↑ "Czech | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All) (in Turanci). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  27. ↑ "Bulgarian | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All) (in Turanci). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  28. ↑ "Slovak | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All) (in Turanci). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  29. ↑ "Belarusian | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All) (in Turanci). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  30. ↑ "Slovene | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All) (in Turanci). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  31. ↑ "Slavic | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All) (in Turanci). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  32. ↑ F. Violi, Lessico Grecanico-Italiano-Grecanico, Apodiafàzzi, Reggio Calabria, 1997.
  33. ↑ Paolo Martino, L'isola grecanica dell'Aspromonte. Aspetti sociolinguistici, 1980. Risultati di un'inchiesta del 1977
  34. ↑ Filippo Violi, Storia degli studi e della letteratura popolare grecanica, C.S.E. Bova (RC), 1992
  35. ↑ Filippo Condemi, Grammatica Grecanica, Coop. Contezza, Reggio Calabria, 1987;
  36. ↑ "In Salento e Calabria le voci della minoranza linguistica greca". Treccani, l'Enciclopedia italiana.
  37. ↑ Dansby, Angela (16 December 2020). "The last speakers of ancient Sparta". BBC Home. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  38. ↑ Pronk, Tijmen (2017). USQUE AD RADICES Indo-European studies in honour of Birgit Anette Olsen: Curonian accentuation. Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 659. ISBN 9788763545761.
  39. ↑ Vaba, Lembit (July 2014). "Curonian linguistic elements in Livonian". Eesti ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri. 5 (1): 173. doi:10.12697/jeful.2014.5.1.09. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
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  67. ↑ Facsimile of Bormann's Memorandum (in German)
    The memorandum itself is typed in Antiqua, but the NSDAP letterhead is printed in Fraktur.
    "For general attention, on behalf of the Führer, I make the following announcement:
    It is wrong to regard or to describe the so‑called Gothic script as a German script. In reality, the so‑called Gothic script consists of Schwabach Jew letters. Just as they later took control of the newspapers, upon the introduction of printing the Jews residing in Germany took control of the printing presses and thus in Germany the Schwabach Jew letters were forcefully introduced.
    Today the Führer, talking with Herr Reichsleiter Amann and Herr Book Publisher Adolf Müller, has decided that in the future the Antiqua script is to be described as normal script. All printed materials are to be gradually converted to this normal script. As soon as is feasible in terms of textbooks, only the normal script will be taught in village and state schools.
    The use of the Schwabach Jew letters by officials will in future cease; appointment certifications for functionaries, street signs, and so forth will in future be produced only in normal script.
    On behalf of the Führer, Herr Reichsleiter Amann will in future convert those newspapers and periodicals that already have foreign distribution, or whose foreign distribution is desired, to normal script".
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  186. ↑ total 22,000 native speakers (2010 Russian census) out of an ethnic population of 44,000. Most of these are in Siberia, with about 8,000 ethnic Nenets in European Russia (2010 census, mostly in Nenets Autonomous Okrug)
  187. ↑ Template:E18
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  190. ↑ Template:E18. Includes Auvergnat, Gascon, Languedocien, Limousin, Provençal, Vivaro-Alpine. Most native speakers are in France; their number is unknown, as varieties of Occitan are treated as French dialects with no official status.
  191. ↑ Total 570,000, of which 450,000 in the Russian Federation. Template:E18
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  195. ↑ Piedmontese was recognised as Piedmont's regional language by the regional parliament in 1999. Motion 1118 in the Piedmontese Regional Parliament, Approvazione da parte del Senato del Disegno di Legge che tutela le minoranze linguistiche sul territorio nazionale – Approfondimenti, approved unanimously on 15 December 1999, Text of motion 1118 in the Piedmontese Regional Parliament, Consiglio Regionale del Piemonte, Ordine del Giorno 1118.
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  229. ↑ c. 12 million in European Turkey, 0.6 million in Bulgaria, 0.6 million in Cyprus and Northern Cyprus; and 2,679,765 L1 speakers in other countries in Europe according to a Eurobarometer survey in 2012: https://languageknowledge.eu/languages/turkish
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  249. ↑ "Ethno-Caucasus – Население Кавказа – Республика Абхазия – Население Абхазии".
  250. ↑ Council of Europe (16 January 2014). European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Fourth periodical presented to the Secretary General of the Council of Europe in accordance with Article 15 of the Charter. CYPRUS (PDF) (Report).
  251. ↑ Azeri community in Dagestan excluded
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  254. ↑ Censuses of Republic of Azerbaijan 1979, 1989, 1999, 2009Archived 30 Nuwamba, 2012 at the Wayback Machine
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  257. ↑ SIL Ethnologue gives estimates, broken down by dialect group, totalling 31 million, but with the caveat of "Very provisional figures for Northern Kurdish speaker population". Ethnologue estimates for dialect groups: Northern: 20.2M (undated; 15M in Turkey for 2009), Central: 6.75M (2009), Southern: 3M (2000), Laki: 1M (2000). The Swedish Nationalencyklopedin listed Kurdish in its "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), citing an estimate of 20.6 million native speakers.
  258. ↑ Ozek, Fatih; Saglam, Bilgit; Gooskens, Charlotte (1 December 2021). "Mutual intelligibility of a Kurmanji and a Zazaki dialect spoken in the province of Elazığ, Turkey". Applied Linguistics Review. De Gruyter academic publishing. 14 (5): 1411–1449. doi:10.1515/applirev-2020-0151. S2CID 244782650 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  259. ↑ "Article" (PDF). armstat.am.
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  261. ↑ Thede Kahl (2006): The islamisation of the Meglen Vlachs (Megleno-Romanians): The village of Nânti (Nótia) and the "Nântinets" in present-day Turkey, Nationalities Papers, 34:01, p80-81: "Assuming that nearly the total population of Nânti emigrated, then the number of emigrants must have been around 4,000. If the reported number of people living there today is added, the whole Meglen Vlachs population is c. 5,000. Although that number is only a rough estimate and may be exaggerated by the individual interviewees, it might correspond to reality."
  262. ↑ "Endangered Languages Project: Mingrelian".
  263. ↑ Özkan, Hakan (2013). "The Pontic Greek spoken by Muslims in the villages of Beşköy in the province of present-day Trabzon". Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. 37 (1): 130–150. doi:10.1179/0307013112z.00000000023.
  264. ↑ "2011 Armenian Census" (PDF).
  265. ↑ 265.0 265.1 265.2 Падение статуса русского языка на постсоветском пространстве. Demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
  266. ↑ 266.0 266.1 266.2 Русскоязычие распространено не только там, где живут русские. demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016.
  267. ↑ Στατιστική Υπηρεσία – Πληθυσμός και Κοινωνικές Συνθήκες – Απογραφή Πληθυσμού – Ανακοινώσεις – Αποτελέσματα Απογραφής Πληθυσμού, 2011 (in Girkanci). Demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 7 May 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
  268. ↑ "Endangered Languages Project: Svan".
  269. ↑ John M. Clifton, Gabriela Deckinga, Laura Lucht, Calvin Tiessen, "Sociolinguistic Situation of the Tat and Mountain Jews in Azerbaijan," In Clifton, ed., Studies in Languages of Azerbaijan, vol. 2 (Azerbaijan & St Petersburg, Russia: Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan & SIL International 2005). Page 3.
  270. ↑ "Population enumerated by age, sex, language spoken and district (1.10.2011) (sheet D1A)". Population – Country of Birth, Citizenship Category, Country of Citizenship, Language, 2011. CYstat. June 2013.[permanent dead link]
  271. ↑ "Census.XLS" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
  272. ↑ Cole, Jeffrey (2011), Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, p. 367, ISBN 978-1-59884-302-6
  273. ↑ France: 4,000,000, Germany: 500k (2015), Spain: 200k UK: 159k (2011 census)
  274. ↑ Arab diaspora, mostly in France, Italy, Spain, Germany, UK, Sweden, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, current size unknown due to the European migrant crisis of 2015–present.
  275. ↑ Germany: 1,510k, France: 444k, Netherlands: 388k, Austria: 197k, Russia: 146k, UK: 99k, Switzerland: 44k, Sweden: 44.
  276. ↑ See Turks in Europe: only counting recent (post-Ottoman era) immigration: Germany: 4,000,000, France: 1,000,000, UK: 500,000, Netherlands: 500,000, Austria: 400,000, Switzerland, Sweden and Russia: 200,000 each.
  277. ↑ 830k in Russia (2010 census), 100k in Ukraine (SIL Ethnologue 2015).
  278. ↑ 2,000,000 Armenians in Russia. France 750k, Ukraine 100k, Germany 100k, Greece 60-80k, Spain 40k, Belgium 30k, Czechia 12k, Sweden 12k, Bulgaria 10-22k, Belarus 8k, Austria 6k, Poland 3-50k, Hungary 3-30k, Netherlands 3-9k, Switzerland 3-5k, Cyprus 3k, Moldova 1-3k, UK 1-2k.
  279. ↑ Germany: 541k
  280. ↑ Kurdish population: mostly Kurds in Germany, Kurds in France, Kurds in Sweden.
  281. ↑ Sylheti: 300k in the UK, Bengali: 221k in the UK.
  282. ↑ see British Indian, Bangladeshi diaspora, Bengali diaspora.
  283. ↑ 515k in Russia (2010 census)
  284. ↑ Azerbaijani diaspora: Russia 600k, Ukraine 45k, not counting 400,000 in Azerbajian's Quba-Khachmaz Region (Shabran District, Khachmaz District, Quba District, Qusar District, Siyazan District) technically in Europe (being north of the Caucasus watershed).
  285. ↑ France: 500k
  286. ↑ Kabyle people in France: 1,000,000.
  287. ↑ Germany 120k, Russia: 70k, UK 66k, Spain 20k.
  288. ↑ Overseas Chinese: France 700,000, UK: 500,000, Russia: 300,000, Italy: 300,000, Germany: 200,000, Spain: 100,000.
  289. ↑ UK: 269k (2011 census).
  290. ↑ Pakistani diaspora, the majority Pakistanis in the UK.
  291. ↑ Russia: 274k (2010 census)
  292. ↑ see Uzbeks in Russia.
  293. ↑ UK: 76k, Sweden: 74k, Germany: 72k, France 40k.
  294. ↑ Iranian diaspora: Germany: 100k, Sweden: 100k, UK: 50k, Russia: 50k, Netherlands: 35k, Denmark: 20k.
  295. ↑ UK: 280k
  296. ↑ see British Punjabis
  297. ↑ UK: 213k
  298. ↑ see Gujarati diaspora
  299. ↑ UK: 101k, Germany: 35k, Switzerland: 22k.
  300. ↑ Tamil diaspora: UK 300k, France 100k, Germany 50k, Switzerland 40k,u Netherlands, 20k, Norway 10k.
  301. ↑ UK: 86k, Sweden: 53k, Italy: 50k
  302. ↑ Somali diaspora: UK: 114k, Sweden: 64k, Norway: 42k, Netherlands: 39k, Germany: 34k, Denmark: 21k, Finland: 19k.

Mahadan Waje[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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