Jump to content

Falsafar Gabas

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Falsafar Gabas
branch of philosophy (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na falsafa
Facet of (en) Fassara falsafa

Falsafar Gabas (wanda ake kira falsafar Asiya ko falsafar Gabas ) ta haɗa da falsafar falsafa daban-daban waɗanda suka samo asali daga Gabas da Kudancin Asiya, ciki har da falsafar Sinanci, falsafar Jafananci, falsafar Koriya, da falsafar Vietnamese ; Waɗanda ke da rinjaye a Gabashin Asiya, da falsafar Indiya (ciki har da falsafar Hindu, falsafar Jain, falsafar Buddha ), waɗanda suka mamaye Kudancin Asiya, kudu maso gabashin Asiya, Tibet, da Mongoliya . [1] [2]

Falsafar Indiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

Valluvar, masanin falsafar Tamil na zamanin Sangam na baya

Falsafar Indiya tana nufin tsohuwar al'adun falsafar ( Sanskrit </link></link> ; 'Ra'ayoyin duniya', 'koyarwa') [3] na yankin Indiya . Addinin Hindu na iya samun tushen tun daga zamanin wayewar Indus Valley . [4] Manyan makarantun addinin sun taso ne a wani lokaci tsakanin farkon Zamani da Daular Gupta . Waɗannan makarantun Hindu sun haɓaka abin da ake kira "Hindu synthesis" wanda ya haɗu da al'adun Brahmanical da abubuwan da ba na al'ada ba daga addinin Buddha da Jainism . [5] Tunanin Hindu kuma ya bazu gabas zuwa daular Srivijaya ta Indonesiya da daular Khmer Cambodia. Waɗannan hadisai na falsafa da addini an haɗa su daga baya a ƙarƙashin lakabin Hindu . Hindu shine babban addini, ko hanyar rayuwa, [8] a Kudancin Asiya . Ya haɗa da Shaivism, Vaishnavism, da Shaktism [9] a tsakanin sauran al'adu masu yawa, da kuma nau'ikan dokoki da yawa na "dabi'a na yau da kullum" bisa karma, dharma, da ka'idojin zamantakewa. Addinin Hindu rarrabuwa ce ta ra'ayi daban-daban na hankali ko falsafa, maimakon tsayayyen tsari na imani gama gari. [10] Addinin Hindu, mai mabiya kusan biliyan daya [11] shine addini na uku mafi girma a duniya bayan Kiristanci da Musulunci . An kira addinin Hindu da " addinan da ya fi dadewa " a duniya kuma ana kiransa da sunan Sanātana Dharma bisa al'ada, " Doka ta har abada" ko "Hanya ta har abada"; [12] [13] [14] bayan asalin mutum. [14] Malaman Yamma suna ɗaukar Hindu a matsayin haɗuwa [15] ko haɗawa [16] [17] [16] na al'adu da al'adun Indiya daban-daban, [18] [19] [20] tare da tushen daban-daban [21] [28] da kuma babu mai kafa guda daya. [29]

Wasu daga cikin litattafan falsafa na farko da suka tsira sune Upanishads na zamanin Vedic na baya (1000-500 KZ) Muhimman ra'ayoyin falsafar Indiya sun haɗa da dharma, karma, samsara, moksha, da ahimsa . Masana falsafa na Indiya sun ɓullo da wani tsari na tunani mai zurfi ( pramana ) da dabaru da bincike kan batutuwa irin su Ontology ( metaphysics, Brahman - Atman, Sunyata - Anatta ), amintattun hanyoyin ilimi ( epistemology, Pramanas ), tsarin darajar ( axiology ) da sauran batutuwa. [1] [2] [3] Falsafar Indiya kuma ta ƙunshi batutuwa kamar falsafar siyasa kamar yadda aka gani a cikin Arthashastra c. Karni na 4 KZ da falsafar soyayya kamar yadda aka gani a cikin Kama Sutra . Adabin Kural na zamanin bayan Sangam tsakanin c. Karni na farko KZ da karni na 5 CE, wanda mawaƙin Tamil -mawallafin Valluvar ya rubuta, masana da yawa sun yarda cewa sun dogara ne akan Jain ko falsafar Hindu .

Ci gaban da ya faru daga baya sun haɗa da ci gaban Tantra da tasirin Iran-Islama. Addinin Buddha galibi ya ɓace daga Indiya bayan Nasarar Musulmi a yankin Indiya, ya tsira a yankunan Himalayan da kudancin Indiya.[1] Farkon zamani ya ga bunƙasa Navya-Nyāya ('sabon dalili') a ƙarƙashin masana falsafa kamar Raghunatha Siromani (c. 1460-1540) waɗanda suka kafa al'adar, Jayarama Pancanana, Mahadeva Punatamakara da Yashovijaya (waɗanda suka tsara amsawar Jain). [2]

Makarantun Orthodox

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Manyan makarantun falsafa na Indiya an rarraba su a matsayin ko dai orthodox ko heterodox - āstika ko nāstika - ya danganta da ɗayan madaidaicin ma'auni guda uku: ko ya yarda Vedas ingantaccen tushen ilimi ne; ko makarantar ta yi imani da wuraren Brahman da Atman ; kuma ko makarantar ta yi imani da lahira da Devas . [30]

Akwai manyan makarantu shida na falsafar Hindu na Hindu - Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā da Vedanta, da manyan makarantun heterodox biyar - Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, da Cārvāka . Duk da haka, akwai wasu hanyoyin rarrabawa; Misali Vidyaranya ya gano makarantu goma sha shida na falsafar Hindu ta Indiya ta hada da waɗanda ke cikin al'adun Śaiva da Raseśvara . [31]

A cikin tarihin Hindu, bambance-bambancen makarantun Orthodox shida na yanzu a zamanin Gupta "zamanin zinare" na addinin Hindu. Tare da bacewar Vaisheshika da Mīmāṃsā, ya zama wanda ba a daina amfani da shi a tsakiyar zamanai na baya, lokacin da ƙananan makarantu daban-daban na Vedanta ( Dvaita "dualism", Advaita Vedanta "non-dualism" da sauransu) suka fara girma a matsayin babban rarrabuwa. na falsafar addini. Nyaya ya rayu a cikin karni na 17 a matsayin Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", yayin da Samkhya a hankali ya rasa matsayinsa na makaranta mai zaman kanta, tsarinsa ya shiga Yoga da Vedanta.

Sāmkhya da Yoga

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Sāmkhya al'adar falsafa ce ta dulist bisa ga Samkhyakarika (c. 320-540 CE), yayin da makarantar Yoga al'ada ce ta kud da kud da ke jaddada tunani da 'yanci wanda babban rubutunsa shine Yoga sutras (c. 400 CE). Abubuwan ra'ayoyin proto-Samkhya, duk da haka, ana iya gano su zuwa lokacin farkon Upanishads . Daya daga cikin manyan bambance-bambancen da ke tsakanin makarantun biyu masu kusanci shi ne cewa Yoga ya yarda da wanzuwar Allah, yayin da yawancin masu tunanin Sāmkhya suka soki wannan ra'ayi.

na Sāmkhya ya yarda da uku daga cikin pramanas (hujja) guda shida a matsayin hanya ɗaya tabbatacciyar hanyar samun ilimi; pratyakṣa ( hasashe ), anumāṇa ( inference ) da śabda (kalmar/shaidar ingantaccen tushe). [1] Makarantar ta haɓaka ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun ƙa'idodi na juyin halitta na sani da kwayoyin halitta . Majiyoyin Sāmkhya suna jayayya cewa sararin samaniya ya ƙunshi haƙiƙai guda biyu, puruṣa ( sani ) da prakṛti ( kwayoyin halitta ).

Kamar yadda Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra (a. arni na 14 A.Z.) ya nuna, Sāmkhya ya ci gaba da bunƙasa a duk tsawon lokacin da.

Nayya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Makarantar Nyāya na ilmin ɗabi'a tana bincika tushen ilimi ( Pramāṇa ) kuma ta dogara ne akan Nyāya Sūtras (kusan karni na 6 KZ da karni na 2 AD). Nyaya yana ganin cewa wahalhalun dan Adam na tasowa ne daga jahilci kuma 'yanci yana tasowa ne ta hanyar ingantaccen ilimi. Don haka, sun nemi su binciki madogaran ingantaccen ilimi ko ilimin zamani.

Nyāya a al'adance yana karɓar Pramanas guda huɗu a matsayin amintattun hanyoyin samun ilimi - Pratyakṣa (haske), Anumāṇa (fito), Upamāṇa (kwatanta da kwatanci) da Śabda (kalma, shaidar masana amintattu na baya ko na yanzu). Nyāya kuma a al'adance yana kare wani nau'i na hakikanin falsafa .

Nyāya Sūtras rubutu ne mai matukar tasiri a falsafar Indiyawa, wanda ya kafa harsashin muhawwara ta al'ada ta Indiya tsakanin makarantun falsafa daban-daban. Ya haɗa da, alal misali, ƙwararrun Hindu sun sake haɗawa da muhawarar Buddha ba kai ba ( anatta ). Har ila yau, aikin yana yin jayayya da wani mahalicci Allah ( Ishvara ), muhawarar da ta zama tsakiyar addinin Hindu a zamanin da.

Vaiśeṣika makarantar ilimin halitta ce ta atomism, wacce ke karɓar tushen ilimi guda biyu kawai, fahimta, da ƙima. Wannan falsafar ta ɗauka cewa duniya ta kasance mai sauƙi zuwa paramāṇu ( atoms ), waɗanda ba su lalacewa ( anitya ), ba za a iya raba su ba, kuma suna da nau'i na musamman, wanda ake kira "kanana" ( aṇu ). Duk abin da muka fuskanta shine tarin waɗannan kwayoyin halitta.

Vaiśeṣika ya tsara duk abubuwan gwaninta cikin abin da suke kira padārtha s (a zahiri: 'ma'anar kalma') wanda ya ƙunshi nau'i shida; dravya (kayan abu), guṇa (quality), karma (aiki), sāmānya (gaba ɗaya), viśeṣa (musamman) da samavāya (samun). Daga baya Vaiśeṣika s ( Śrīdhara da Udayana da Śivāditya ) ya ƙara wani nau'i abhava (rashin wanzuwa). Rukuni uku na farko an bayyana su a matsayin artha (waɗanda za a iya gane su) kuma suna da haƙiƙanin wanzuwar haƙiƙa. Rukuni uku na ƙarshe an bayyana su da budhyapekṣam (samfurin nuna wariya) kuma su ne nau'i na hankali. [32]

Mimaṃsa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mīmāṃsā makaranta ce ta orthopraxy na al'ada kuma an san shi da nazarin tafsirinsa da fassarar Vedas . Don wannan al'ada, nazarin dharma a matsayin al'ada da aikin zamantakewa ya kasance mafi mahimmanci. Sun kuma ɗauka cewa Vedas sun kasance "madawwamiyar, marasa mawallafi, [kuma] ma'asumai" da kuma cewa Vedic umarnin da mantras a cikin al'ada ayyuka ne na asali na farko. Saboda mayar da hankalinsu kan nazarin rubutu da fassara, Mīmāṃsā ya kuma haɓaka ka'idodin ilimin falsafa da falsafar harshe wanda ya shafi sauran makarantun Indiya. [33] Da farko sun ɗauka cewa manufar harshe shine don tsara ayyuka masu kyau, al'adu, da kuma daidai dharma (aiki ko nagarta). Mīmāṃsā shi ma ya fi zindikanci, yana mai cewa shaidar samuwar Allah ba ta isa ba kuma alloli da aka ambata a cikin Vedas ba su da wata rayuwa baya ga sunaye, mantras da ikonsu.

Mabuɗin rubutu na makarantar Mīmāṃsā shine Mīmāṃsā Sūtra na Jaimini da manyan malaman Mīmāṃsā sun haɗa da Prabhākara (wajen 7th century) da Kumārila Bhaṭṭa ( fl. kusan 700). Makarantar Mīmāṃsā ta yi tasiri sosai ga Vedānta, wadda kuma aka sani da Uttara-Mīmāṃsā ; duk da haka, yayin da Mīmāṃsā ya jaddada karmakāṇḍa, ko nazarin ayyukan al'ada, ta yin amfani da Vedas hudu na farko, makarantun Vedānta sun jaddada jñanakāṇḍa, nazarin ilimin, ta amfani da sassa na baya na Vedas kamar Upaniṣads .

Vedanta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Adi Shankara (karni na 8 AD) babban jigon Advaita Vedānta

Vedānta (ma'anar "ƙarshen Vedas ") ko Uttara-Mīmāṃsā, rukuni ne na al'adu waɗanda ke mayar da hankali kan al'amuran falsafar da aka samu a cikin Prasthanatrayi (tushen uku), waɗanda sune Babban Upanishads, Brahma Sutras da Bhagavad Gita . [34] Vedānta yana ganin Vedas, musamman Upanishads, a matsayin ingantaccen tushen ilimi.

Babban damuwa ga waɗannan makarantu shine yanayin da alaƙar da ke tsakanin Brahman (gaskiya na ƙarshe, fahimtar duniya), Ātman (rai ɗaya) da Prakriti (duniya ta zahiri).

Ƙananan al'adun Vedānta sun haɗa da Advaita (marasa dualism), Vishishtadvaita (wanda ba shi da dualism), Dvaita (dualism), da Bhedabheda (bambanci da rashin bambanci). [35] Saboda shaharar motsin bhakti, Vedānta ya zama mafi rinjaye a halin yanzu na addinin Hindu a zamanin baya-bayan nan.

Sauran

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yayin da kididdigar ilimin falsafar Indiya ta gargajiya ta lissafo makarantu na addinin Islama guda shida, akwai wasu makarantu da a wasu lokutan ake ganinsu a matsayin na addinin. Waɗannan sun haɗa da:

  • Paśupata, makarantar sha'awa ta Shaivism wacce Lakulisha ta kafa (≈2nd karni CE).
  • Śaiva Siddhānta, makarantar Shaivism dualistic wadda Samkhya ya yi tasiri sosai.
  • Makarantar Pratyabhijña (gane) na Utpaladeva (ƙarni na 10) da Abhinavagupta (975-1025 CE), wani nau'i ne na Shaiva tantra ba dual .
  • Raseśvara, makarantar mercurial
  • Pāṇini Darśana, makarantar nahawu (wanda ke fayyace ka'idar Sphoṭa )

Makarantun Heterodox ko Śramaṇic

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  Makarantun nāstika ko heterodox suna da alaƙa da al'adun Śramaṇic waɗanda ba na Vedic ba waɗanda suka wanzu a Indiya tun kafin ƙarni na 6 KZ. Ƙungiyar Śramaṇa ta haifar da nau'o'in ra'ayoyin da ba na Vedic ba, kama daga yarda ko musun ra'ayoyin atman, atomism, jari-hujja, rashin yarda da Allah, agnosticism, fatalism zuwa 'yancin son rai, matsananciyar asceticism, tsananin ahimsa (rashin tashin hankali) da cin ganyayyaki. . Filayen falsafar da suka taso daga ƙungiyar Śramaṇic sune Jainism, Buddha na farko, Cārvāka, Ajñana, da Ājīvika .

Jain falsafar

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Falsafar Jain tana magana da yawa game da matsalolin metaphysics, gaskiya, ilmin sararin samaniya, ontology, ilmin ilmin halitta, da allahntaka . Jainism shine ainihin addinin transtheistic na tsohuwar Indiya. :182Ya ci gaba da tsohuwar al'adar Śramaṇa, wacce ta kasance tare da al'adar Vedic tun zamanin da. [36] Siffofin bambance-bambancen falsafar Jain sun haɗa da dualism-jiki, ƙaryatãwa game da Allah mai halitta kuma mai iko duka, karma, sararin samaniya na har abada kuma ba a halicce shi ba, rashin tashin hankali, ka'idar bangarori masu yawa na gaskiya, da ɗabi'a bisa ga ' yanci na rai. . Falsafar Jain tana ƙoƙarin bayyana dalilin kasancewa da wanzuwa, yanayin sararin samaniya da abubuwan da ke cikinta, yanayin bauta da hanyoyin samun 'yanci. An kwatanta shi sau da yawa a matsayin motsi na ascetic don ƙarfafa ƙarfinsa akan kamun kai, austerities, da renunciation. Har ila yau, an kira shi abin koyi na sassaucin ra'ayi na falsafa saboda dagewar da ta yi na cewa gaskiya tana da alaka da bangarori da dama da kuma shirye-shiryenta na daukar duk wani ra'ayi na falsafar kishiya. Jainism yana ƙarfafa dabi'ar mutum ɗaya na rai da alhakin mutum na yanke shawara, kuma cewa dogaro da kai da ƙoƙarin mutum ɗaya kaɗai ke da alhakin 'yantar da mutum. [37]

Gudunmawar da Jains suka bayar wajen haɓaka falsafar Indiya ta kasance mai mahimmanci. Ra'ayoyin falsafar Jain kamar Ahimsa, Karma, Moksa, Samsara, da makamantansu suna da alaƙa da sauran addinan Indiya kamar Hindu da Buddha ta nau'i daban-daban. [38] Yayin da Jainism ya bibiyi falsafarsa daga koyarwar Mahavira da sauran Tirthankaras, masana falsafa na Jain daban-daban daga Kundakunda da Umasvati a zamanin da zuwa Yasovijaya da Shrimad Rajchandra a cikin 'yan lokutan sun ba da gudummawa ga maganganun falsafar Indiya ta hanyoyin Jain na musamman.

Karvaka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Cārvāka ko Lokāyata falsafar rashin yarda da Allah ce ta shakku da son jari-hujja, wanda ya ƙi Vedas da duk koyarwar allahntaka. Masana falsafa na Cārvāka irin su Brihaspati sun kasance masu tsananin suka ga sauran makarantun falsafa na lokacin. Cārvāka ya ɗauki Vedas ya zama gurɓatacce da kuskure uku na rashin gaskiya, saba wa kai, da tautology. Sun ayyana Vedas a matsayin rhapsodies marasa daidaituwa waɗanda mutane suka ƙirƙira waɗanda kawai amfanin su shine samar da abin rayuwa ga firistoci. [39]

Hakazalika, sun ɓata addinin Buddha da Jains, suna yin ba'a game da manufar 'yanci, sake reincarnation, da tara cancanta ko rashin cancanta ta hanyar karma. Sun yi imani ra'ayin barin jin daɗi don guje wa ciwo shine "tunanin wawaye". Epistemology na Cārvāka yana riƙe hasashe a matsayin tushen ilimi na farko yayin ƙin yarda wanda zai iya zama mara inganci. [40] Rubutun farko na Cārvāka, kamar Barhaspatya sutras (c. 600 KZ) sun ɓace. [41]

Jivika

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Makkhali Gosala ne ya kafa Ājīvika, ƙungiya ce ta Śramaṇa kuma babbar kishiya ce ta addinin Buddha na farko da Jainism .

Nassosin asali na mazhabar falsafar Ājīvika wataƙila sun taɓa wanzuwa, amma waɗannan ba su wanzu kuma wataƙila sun ɓace. An samo ra'ayoyinsu ne daga ambaton Ajivikas a cikin tushe na biyu na tsoffin adabin Indiyawan Indiya, musamman na Jainism da Buddha waɗanda suka soki Ajivikas. Makarantar Ājīvika an santa da koyarwar Niyati na cikakken ƙaddara (ƙaddara), jigo na cewa babu 'yancin zaɓe, cewa duk abin da ya faru, yana faruwa kuma zai faru gaba ɗaya an riga an tsara shi kuma aiki ne na ƙa'idodin sararin samaniya. Ājīvika ya ɗauki koyaswar karma a matsayin ƙarya. Ājīvikas sun kasance waɗanda basu yarda da Allah ba kuma sun ƙi ikon Vedas, amma sun yi imani cewa a cikin kowane mai rai akwai ātman - babban jigo na Hindu da Jainism.

Ajana

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ajñana makarantar Śramaṇa ce ta masu tsattsauran ra'ayi na Indiyawa kuma mai adawa da addinin Buddah na farko da Jainism. Sun ɗauka cewa ba shi yiwuwa a sami ilimin metaphysical ko tabbatar da gaskiyar ƙimar shawarwarin falsafa; [42] kuma ko da ilimin zai yiwu, ba shi da amfani kuma yana da lahani don ceto na ƙarshe. Ana ganin su a matsayin ƴan sophists waɗanda suka ƙware wajen karyatawa ba tare da yada wani ingantaccen koyaswar nasu ba. Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa (fl. c. 800), marubucin aikin shakku mai suna Tattvopaplavasiṃha ("Zakin da ke cinye Duk Rukunin Rubuce-rubucen" / "The Upsetting of All Principles"), an gani a matsayin wani muhimmin falsafar Ajñana. [43]

Falsafar Buddha

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

Jami'ar Buddhist Nalanda da gidan ibada babbar cibiyar koyo ce a Indiya daga karni na 5 AZ zuwa c. 1200.
Sufaye suna muhawara a gidan sufi na Sera, Tibet, 2013

Falsafar Buddha ta fara da tunanin Gautama Buddha (fl. tsakanin ƙarni na shida da na huɗu KZ) kuma an kiyaye shi a farkon rubutun Buddha . Gabaɗaya yana nufin binciken ilimin falsafa da ya haɓaka tsakanin makarantun Buddha daban-daban a Indiya kuma daga baya ya bazu ko'ina cikin Asiya ta hanyar siliki . Tunanin addinin Buddah shine trans-regional da trans-al'adu. Ita ce babbar al'adar falsafa a Tibet da kasashen kudu maso gabashin Asiya kamar Sri Lanka da Burma .

Babban abin da ke damun addinin Buddha shine ilimin halayyar ɗan adam, wanda aka ayyana a matsayin 'yanci daga dukkha (rashin lafiya). [44] Domin ana ɗaukar jahilcin ainihin yanayin abubuwa ɗaya daga cikin tushen wahala, masu tunani na Buddha sun damu da kansu da tambayoyin falsafar da suka shafi ilimin ilmin halitta da kuma amfani da hankali. [45] Mahimman ra'ayoyin addinin Buddah sun haɗa da Gaskiya guda huɗu masu daraja, Anatta (ba-kai) wani zargi na ƙayyadaddun ainihin mutum, ƙetare kowane abu ( Anicca ), da kuma wasu shakku game da tambayoyin metaphysical . Masu tunanin addinin Buddah a Indiya da daga baya a Gabashin Asiya sun rufe batutuwa dabam-dabam kamar ilimin phenomenology, xa'a, ontology, ilimin kimiya, dabaru, da falsafar lokaci .

Bayan bacewar addinin Buddha daga Indiya, waɗannan al'adun falsafa sun ci gaba da bunƙasa a cikin addinin Buddha na Tibet, Buddha na Gabashin Asiya, da al'adun Buddha na Theravada . A Tibet, al'adun Indiya sun ci gaba da bunkasa a karkashin aikin masu tunani kamar Sakya Pandita, Tsongkhapa, da Ju Mipham . A addinin Buddah na Gabashin Asiya, masu tunani na Yogacara na Gabashin Asiya sun jagoranci sabbin abubuwan da suka faru kamar Paramartha, Xuanzang, da Wŏnhyo da Madhyamaka na Gabashin Asiya kamar Jizang . Sabbin makarantun sinitic kuma sun taso, kamar Tiantai, wanda Zhiyi ya kafa, Huayan, wanda mutane kamar Fazang suka kare, da Zen, waɗanda suka haɗa da masana falsafa kamar Guifeng Zongmi .

Buddhist zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

 

Hu Shih da DT Suzuki a ziyarar da ya kai kasar Sin a shekarar 1934

Zamanin zamani ya ga haɓakar zamani na addinin Buddah da addinin Buddha na ɗan adam a ƙarƙashin tasirin Yamma da haɓaka addinin Buddha na Yamma tare da tasiri daga ilimin halin zamani da falsafar Yammacin Turai. Mahimman abubuwan da suka shafi zamani na addinin Buddah sun hada da Anagarika Dharmapala (1864-1933) da kuma dan kasar Amurka Henry Karfe Olcott, masu zamani na kasar Sin Taixu (1890-1947) da Yin Shun (1906-2005), masanin Zen DT Suzuki, da kuma Tibet Chöphel Gendün . 1903-1951). Zamanin addinin Buddah yana nufin "nau'i na addinin Buddah waɗanda suka fito daga haɗin kai tare da manyan al'adu da masu hankali na zamani." [46] Ƙungiyoyin da suka rinjayi masu zamani kamar Dhammapala da Yin Shun sun haɗa da dabi'un haskakawa da kimiyyar Yammacin Turai. Babban jagoran Dalit na Indiya BR Ambedkar ne ya kafa ƙungiyar Neo-Buddha a cikin shekarun 1950 wanda ya jaddada sake fasalin zamantakewa da siyasa.

Zamanin addinin Buddha ya haɗa da ƙungiyoyi daban-daban kamar addinin Buddha na ɗan adam, addinin Buddha na duniya, motsi na Vipassana, da addinin Buddah mai haɗaka . addinin Buddah na dan Adam na kasar Sin ko kuma "Budanci ga Rayuwar Dan Adam" ( Sinanci: 人生佛教; pinyin: rénshēng fójiào) wanda ya kasance ba tare da gaskatawar allahntaka ba ya kasance wani nau'i mai tasiri na addinin Buddha na zamani a Asiya.

Falsafar Sikh

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Sikhism addinin Indiya ne wanda Guru Nanak (1469-1539) ya haɓaka a cikin yankin Punjab a lokacin Mughal Era shine Guru Granth Sahib . Muhimman abubuwan da suka gaskata sun haɗa da yin bimbini na ruhaniya na sunan Allah akai-akai, Guru yana jagoranta maimakon yin biyayya ga rashin tausayi, rayuwa ta rayuwar mai gida maimakon monasticism, aikin gaskiya ga dharma (adalci, halin kirki), daidaito na dukan mutane, da kuma imani da yardar Allah. [47] Mahimman ra'ayoyi sun haɗa da Simran, Seva, Rukunan Sikhism guda uku, da barayi biyar .

Falsafar Indiyawan zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Daga hagu zuwa dama: Virchand Gandhi, Anagarika Dharmapala, Swami Vivekananda, G. Bonet Maury . Majalisar Addinin Duniya, 1893

Dangane da mulkin mallaka da hulɗarsu da falsafar Yammacin Turai, Indiyawan ƙarni na 19 sun haɓaka sabbin hanyoyin tunani waɗanda yanzu ake kira Neo-Vedanta da Hindu zamani. Ra'ayoyinsu sun mayar da hankali kan duniyoyin falsafar Indiya (musamman Vedanta) da haɗin kai na addinai daban-daban. A wannan lokacin ne masu bin addinin Hindu na zamani suka gabatar da manufa guda daya da ta dace da " Hindu ". misalin falsafar Advaita Vedanta . [48] Har ila yau, ra'ayoyin Yammacin Turai sun rinjaye su. Farkon waɗannan ƙungiyoyi shine na Brahmo Samaj na Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833). Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) ya kasance mai tasiri sosai wajen haɓaka ƙungiyoyin gyare-gyaren Hindu da kuma kawo ra'ayin duniya zuwa yamma. [49] Ta hanyar aikin Indiyawa kamar Vivekananda da kuma yammacin turai irin su masu goyon bayan al'ummar Theosophical, tunanin Hindu na zamani ya rinjayi al'adun yammaci. [50]

Tunanin siyasa na kishin Hindu kuma wani muhimmin lokaci ne a tunanin Indiyawan zamani. Ayyukan Mahatma Gandhi, Deendayal Upadhyaya, Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo, Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya, da Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan ya yi tasiri sosai a kan falsafar Indiya ta zamani.

Har ila yau, Jainism yana da masu fassara da masu kare shi na zamani, irin su Virchand Gandhi, Champat Rai Jain, da Shrimad Rajchandra (wanda aka sani da jagoran ruhaniya na Mahatma Gandhi ).

Falsafar Gabashin Asiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Daya daga cikin manyan dakunan karatu na Guozijian (Imperial College) a cikin tsakiyar birnin Beijing, jami'ar koli mafi girma a kasar Sin kafin zamani.

Tunanin falsafar gabashin Asiya ya fara ne tun daga tsohuwar kasar Sin, kuma falsafar Sinawa ta fara ne a zamanin daular Zhou ta Yamma da kuma wasu lokuta bayan faduwarta lokacin da " Makarantar Tunani dari " ta bunkasa (karni na 6 zuwa 221 KZ). [51] Wannan lokacin yana da gagarumin ci gaba na ilimi da al'adu, kuma an sami bunƙasar manyan makarantun falsafar Sinawa ( Confucianism, Legalism, da Daoism ) da kuma makarantun da ba su da tasiri sosai ( Mohism, Makarantar Suna, Makarantar Yin Yang ). Waɗannan al'adun falsafa sun haɓaka ka'idodin metaphysical, siyasa, da ɗabi'a waɗanda, tare da addinin Buddha na kasar Sin, suna da tasiri kai tsaye ga sauran wuraren al'adun gabashin Asiya . Addinin Buddah ya fara isa kasar Sin a zamanin daular Han (206 KZ-220 CE), ta hanyar watsa hanyar siliki a hankali kuma a hankali ya samar da nau'ikan Sinawa daban-daban (kamar Chan/ Zen ).

Confucianism

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

  Confucianism (孔教, Kǒngjiào - "rukunan Confucius"), kuma aka sani da "Ruism" ( Rújiào - "rukunan malamai"), tsarin falsafar kasar Sin ne tare da al'ada, ɗabi'a, da aikace-aikacen addini. Al'adar ta samo asali ne a kusa da koyarwar Confucius ( Kǒng Fūzǐ, 孔夫子, "Master Kong", 551-479 KZ) wanda ya ga kansa yana watsa dabi'u da tauhidin kakanni a gabansa. Sauran fitattun masana falsafa na Confucian na gargajiya sun haɗa da Mencius da Xun Kuang waɗanda suka shahara da sabani game da ɗabi'ar ɗan adam.

Confucianism babban akidar mulkin mallaka ne a lokacin daular Han (206 KZ-220 CE) kuma an sake farfado da shi azaman Neo-Confucianism a lokacin daular Tang (618-907). A zamanin daular kasar Sin daga baya kamar daular Song (960-1297) da daular Ming (1368-1644) da kuma a daular Joseon ta Koriya (1392-1897) wani tsarin Neo-Confucianism wanda masu tunani irin su Zhu Xi (1130-1200) suka jagoranta. ) da Wang Yangming (1472-1529) ya zama babbar makarantar tunani kuma gwamnatin mulkin mallaka ta inganta shi. Tun daga daular Song, litattafan gargajiya na Confucian sune tushen jarrabawar daular kuma sun zama ainihin falsafar ajin ƙwararrun malamai . Confucianism ya fuskanci koma baya a cikin karni na 20, amma kwanan nan yana fuskantar farfadowa, wanda ake kira Sabon Confucianism . [52]

A al'adance, al'adun gabashin Asiya da kasashen da ke cikin al'adu suna da tasiri sosai daga Confucianism, ciki har da China Mainland, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam da kuma yankuna daban-daban na ketare da Sinawa na ketare suka mamaye, kamar Singapore .

Shari'a

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Legalism (法家， pinyin : Fǎjiā; makarantar "hanyoyi" ko "ma'auni") al'ada ce ta falsafa wacce ta mai da hankali kan dokoki, siyasa, da gudanarwa na hukuma. [53] Galibi sun yi watsi da ɗabi'a ko ra'ayoyi masu kyau game da yadda al'umma ta kamata ta kasance, sun mai da hankali kan gwamnati mai aiki ta hanyar ikon mai mulkin kama karya da jiha . Manufarsu ita ce a sami ƙarin tsari, tsaro, da kwanciyar hankali. Tun farko ra'ayoyin Mohist ne suka rinjaye su. Babban jigo na wannan makaranta shi ne shugaba kuma masanin falsafa Shen Buhai (kimanin 400-337 KZ). [54] Wani jigo na tsakiya, Shang Yang (390-338 KZ), shi ne babban dan siyasa kuma mai kawo sauyi wanda ya mayar da kasar Qin zuwa babbar iko wadda ta ci sauran kasar Sin a shekara ta 221 KZ. Magajin Shen, Han Fei (a shekara ta 280-233 KZ) ya haɗa tunanin sauran 'yan dokoki a cikin rubutunsa mai suna, Han Feizi , ɗaya daga cikin litattafai mafi tasiri na shari'a wanda masu mulki da masu mulki na kasar Sin masu mulki suka yi amfani da su a matsayin jagora ga mulkin kasa. kungiyar bureaucratic na mulkin kasa. [55]

Mohism

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Mozi (c. 470-391 KZ) da ɗalibansa suka kafa. Ita ce babbar makaranta ta tunani da kishiya na Confucianism da Taoism a lokacin bazara da kaka da lokutan Jihohin yaƙi (c. 770-221 KZ). Babban rubutun makarantar shine Mozi (littafi) . Tunanin gudanarwa na Mohism daga baya Legalism ya mamaye tunaninsu, ka'idodinsu sun shiga cikin Confucianism kuma littattafansa kuma sun hade cikin littafin Taoist, kamar yadda Mohism ya ɓace a matsayin makaranta mai zaman kanta bayan zamanin daular Qin .

Mohism an fi saninsa da ra'ayin "kulawa marar son kai" ( Sinanci : 兼愛; pinyin : jiān ài ; a zahiri: "ƙauna / kulawa mai haɗawa"). [56] A cewar Jagora Mo, ya kamata mutane su kula daidai da sauran mutane, ba tare da la’akari da ainihin dangantakarsu da su ba. Mo ya kuma ba da shawarar nuna son kai a cikin gwamnati wanda ya kamata ya dogara da basira, ba dangantaka ta jini ba. Mozi ya yi adawa da al'adar Confucian, maimakon haka yana jaddada rayuwa ta zahiri ta hanyar noma, katanga, da aikin gwamnati . Al'ada ba ta dace ba, kuma 'yan adam suna buƙatar ƙarin jagorar gargajiya don gano waɗanne hadisai da aka yarda da su. Jagorar ɗabi'a dole ne ta haɓaka da ƙarfafa halayen zamantakewa waɗanda ke haɓaka fa'ida ta gaba ɗaya. A matsayin dalili na ka'idarsa, Mozi ya kawo nufin sama, amma maimakon ya zama addini falsafancinsa yayi daidai da amfani .

Mohism kuma yana da alaƙa da kuma tasiri ta wata makarantar falsafa ta daban da aka sani da Makarantar Suna ( Míngjiā ; kuma aka sani da 'Logicians'), wanda ya mayar da hankali kan falsafar harshe, ma'ana, da dabaru . [57] [58]

Taoism

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Sages Bakwai na Bamboo Grove, Sage, 1860-1880

Taoism (ko Daoism) kalma ce na falsafanci da tsarin addini daban-daban waɗanda ke jaddada jituwa da Tao ( Sinanci : 道; pinyin : Dào ; a zahiri: "Hanya") wanda ake gani a matsayin ka'ida wanda shine tushe, tsari, da zahirin duk abin da ya wanzu. [1] Taoism yana ƙoƙarin jaddada kyawawan dabi'u irin su wu wei (aiki mara ƙarfi), ziran (naturalness), pu (mai sauƙi), da spontaneity yayin da yake ba da fifiko ga ƙa'idodi da al'ada (saɓanin Confucianism). Samun dawwama ta hanyar ilimin kimiyya na waje ( waidan ) da alchemy na ciki ( neidan ) ya kasance muhimmiyar manufa ga yawancin Taoists a tarihi.

Siffofin farko na Taoism sun samo asali ne a cikin karni na 4 KZ, wanda ka'idodin sararin samaniya na Makarantar 'yan halitta da I Ching suka rinjayi. Makarantar 'yan dabi'a ko Yin-yang wata makarantar falsafa ce wadda ta hada ra'ayoyin yin-yang da abubuwa biyar ; An dauki Zou Yan a matsayin wanda ya kafa.

Dao De Jing (Tao-Te-Ching, c. karni na 4 KZ), wanda aka danganta da Laozi, da Nan Hua Jing (Zhuang Zi) ana ɗaukar su mahimman matani na al'adar.[59] Hanyar farko da aka tsara ta Taoism, makarantar Tianshi (Celestial Masters') ta tashi a karni na 2 AZ. Xuanxue ("koyon zurfi", kuma "Neo-Taoism") babban motsi ne na falsafa wanda ya rinjayi ilimin Confucian, wanda ya mayar da hankali kan fassarar Yijing, Daodejing, da Zhuangzi kuma wanda ya bunƙasa a cikin ƙarni na uku zuwa na shida AZ. Manyan masana falsafa na wannan motsi sune Ya Yan, Wang Bi, Sages Bakwai na Bamboo Grove, Ge Hong, da Guo Xiang . Masu tunani kamar He Yan da Wang Bi sun mai da hankali kan zurfin yanayin Tao, wanda suka ga a matsayin mafi kyawun misali ta kalmar "Wu" (babu komai, rashin kasancewa, mummunan abu). [60]

Falsafar Gabashin Asiya ta zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Sinanci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Xiong Shili kusan 1960

Tunanin Sinanci na zamani ana ganin gabaɗaya a matsayin tushen tushen Confucianism na gargajiya ( Jingxue ), Neo-Confucianism ( Lixue ), Buddha, Daoism, da Xixue ("Learning Western" wanda ya taso a lokacin daular Ming marigayi).

Yaƙin Opium na 1839-42 ya ga farkon mamayewar Yammacin Turai da Japanawa da cin zarafin Sinawa wanda ke wulakanta masu tunanin Sinawa. A karshen karni na 19 da farkon karni na 20, an ga masu tunanin kasar Sin irin su Zhang Zhidong suna kallon ilmin aiki na kasashen yamma a matsayin wata hanya ta kiyaye al'adun gargajiyar kasar Sin, koyarwar da ya bayyana a matsayin "Koyon Sinanci a matsayin Sinadari da Koyon Yamma a matsayin Aiki" ( Zhongti Xiyong ).

A halin da ake ciki 'yan gargajiya sun nemi farfado da karfafa makarantun falsafar gargajiyar kasar Sin. Masu tunani kamar Yang Rensan da Ou-Yang Jingwu [1] ne suka inganta tunanin addinin Buddah na kasar Sin yayin da wani yunkuri mai tasiri shi ne Sabon Confucianism ( Sinanci: 新儒家; pinyin : xīn rú jiā ). Sabon Confucianism farfaɗo da al'adun gargajiya ne na tunanin Confucius a China tun daga cikin arni na 20 na Jamhuriyar Republican China wanda kuma ke da alaƙa da Sabuwar Conservatism . Mabuɗin Sabbin Confucians na ƙarni na farko sune Xiong Shili da Fung Youlan . [2] Ƙarni na biyu (1950-1979) sun haɗa da mutane kamar Tang Junyi, Mou Zongsan, da Xu Fuguan, dukan dalibai uku na Xiong Shili. Tare da Zhang Junmai, tsara na biyu sun buga sabon bayanin Confucian a 1958.

Jafananci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Fukuzawa Yukichi (1862) babban mai fafutukar kare hakkin jama'a kuma mai tunani mai sassaucin ra'ayi

Tunanin Jafananci na zamani yana da ƙarfi sosai daga kimiyya da falsafar Yammacin Turai. Saurin sabuntar da Japan ta samu wani bangare ne na taimakon binciken farko na kimiyyar yammacin duniya (wanda aka sani da Rangaku ) a lokacin Edo (1603-1868). Wani motsi na tunani a lokacin Edo shi ne Kokugaku (nazarin kasa), wanda ya nemi mayar da hankali kan nazarin tsohuwar tunanin Jafananci, litattafai na gargajiya, da al'adu a kan al'adun Sinawa da na Buddha na waje. [61] Babban jigon wannan motsi shine Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801), wanda yayi jayayya cewa ainihin adabin Jafananci da al'adun gargajiya shine ma'anar da ake kira mono no sani ("bakin ciki a cikin ɓarna").

A zamanin Meiji (1868-1912), Meirokusha ɗan zamani (Meiji 6, wanda aka kafa a 1874) ƙungiyar masu hankali ta haɓaka tunanin wayewar Turai . Masana falsafa na Meirokusha kamar Mori Arinori, Nishi Amane, da Fukuzawa Yukichi sun nemi hanyoyin haɗa ra'ayoyin Yamma tare da al'adun Japan da dabi'u. Lokacin Shōwa (1926-1989) ya ga haɓakar Shinto na Jiha da kishin Jafananci .

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Ram-Prasad, Chakravarthi; "Eastern philosophy" (2005)
  2. ↑ Fischer-Schreiber, Ehrhard, Friedrichs; Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion (1994)
  3. ↑ "Spoken Sanskrit, darzana". Archived from the original on 6 January 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
  4. ↑ Jainism by Mrs. N.R. Guseva p. 44
  5. ↑ Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge
  6. ↑ Sharma 2003, pp. 12–13.
  7. ↑ Flood 2008, pp. 1–17.
  8. ↑ Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of life" ([6]) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in [7]
  9. ↑ Nath 2001.
  10. ↑ Georgis 2010.
  11. ↑ "The Global Religious Landscape – Hinduism". A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010. The pew foundation. 2012-12-18. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
  12. ↑ Bowker 2000.
  13. ↑ Harvey 2001.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Knott 1998.
  15. ↑ Lockard 2007, p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." Lockard 2007, p. 52: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Samuel 2010.
  17. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320–467 CE)."
  18. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007.
  19. ↑ Flood 1996.
  20. ↑ Lockard 2007.
  21. ↑ Narayanan 2009.
  22. ↑ Narayanan 2009, p. 11.
  23. ↑ Lockard 2007, p. 52.
  24. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 3.
  25. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. xviii.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Flood 1996, p. 16.
  27. ↑ Gomez 2013, p. 42.
  28. ↑ Among its roots are the Vedic religion of the late Vedic period (Flood 1996, p. 16) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans (Samuel 2010, pp. 48–53), but also the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation,[22] [23][24][25] the Sramana or renouncer traditions of north-east India,[26][27] and "popular or local traditions".[26]
  29. ↑ Osborne 2005.
  30. ↑ John Bowker, Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, p. 259
  31. ↑ Nicholson, pp. 158–162.
  32. ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, pp. 183–186
  33. ↑ Peter M. Scharf, The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy (1996), Chapter 3
  34. ↑ Ranganathan; Hiriyanna 1948, pp. 19, 21–25, 150–152; Grimes 1990, pp. 6–7
  35. ↑ "Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-03-10. Retrieved 2024-10-10.
  36. ↑ Empty citation (help), p. 141
  37. ↑ Carrithers, Michael (June 1989). "Naked Ascetics in Southern Digambar Jainism". Man. New Series. 24 (2): 219–235. doi:10.2307/2803303. JSTOR 2803303. p. 220
  38. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  39. ↑ Original Sanskrit version: Sarva-darsana-sangraha, pp. 3–7; English version: The Charvaka System with commentary by Madhava Acharya, Translators: Cowell and Gough (1882), pp. 5–9
  40. ↑ MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Cārvāka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13–16
  41. ↑ Radhakrishnan 1957, pp. 227–249
  42. ↑ Jayatilleke, K.N. (1963). Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge (PDF) (1st ed.). London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. pp. 112–113.
  43. ↑ Salunkhe, AH (2009). Astikshiromani Charvaka (in Marathi). Satara: Lokayat Prakashan. p. 36.
  44. ↑ Gunnar Skirbekk, Nils Gilje, A history of Western thought: from ancient Greece to the twentieth century. 7th edition published by Routledge, 2001, p. 25.
  45. ↑ Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as philosophy, 2007, p. 6
  46. ↑ McMahan, David L. (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. p. 6
  47. ↑ William Owen Cole; Piara Singh Sambhi (1995). The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 130–133, 200.
  48. ↑ Yelle, Robert A. (2012), "Comparative Religion as Cultural Combat: Occidentalism and Relativism in Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different", International Journal of Hindu Studies, 16 (3): 335–348, doi:10.1007/s11407-012-9133-z
  49. ↑ Georg, Feuerstein (2002), The Yoga Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
  50. ↑ Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. pp. 185–188. De directe bevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip
  51. ↑ Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, Chinese philosophy.
  52. ↑ Benjamin Elman, John Duncan and Herman Ooms ed. Rethinking Confucianism: Past and Present in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam(Los Angeles: UCLA Asian Pacific Monograph Series, 2002).
  53. ↑ Ross Terril 2003 p. 68. The New Chinese Empire. https://books.google.com/books?id=TKowRrrz5BIC&pg=PA68
  54. ↑ Creel, 1974 p. 4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century BCE.
  55. ↑ Hengy Chye Kiang 1999. p.v44. Cities of Aristocrats and Bureaucrats. https://books.google.com/books?id=BIgS4p8NykYC&pg=PA44
  56. ↑ The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by Edward Craig. Routledge Publishing. 2005.
  57. ↑ Liu, Fenrong (January 2008). "A Note on Mohist Logic". Research Gate. Retrieved May 1, 2024.
  58. ↑ Willman, Marshall D (2023). "Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved May 1, 2024.
  59. ↑ Kohn, Livia, ed. Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000). p. 44.
  60. ↑ Chan, Alan, "Neo-Daoism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/neo-daoism/ .
  61. ↑ Earl, David Margarey, Emperor and Nation in Japan, Political Thinkers of the Tokugawa Period, University of Washington Press, 1964, pp. 66 ff.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Falsafar_Gabas&oldid=535752"