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Ilimi a Musulunci

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Ilimi a Musulunci
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na Islamic governance (en) Fassara da karantarwa
Gudanarwan Islamic teacher (en) Fassara

Iimi ya taka muhimmiyar rawa a Musulunci tun farkon addini, saboda kasan cewar sa tsakiyan nassi da nazarin sa a al'adar Musulunci. Kafin zamani, ilimi zai fara tun yana ƙarami tare da karatun Larabci da Alqur'ani. A farkon ƙarni na farko na Musulunci, tsarin ilimi gaba ɗaya bai zama na yau da kullum ba, amma tun daga ƙarni na 11 zuwa na 12, masu mulki suka fara kafa cibiyoyin ilimi na addini da a kafi sani da madrasa, a ƙoƙarin neman tallafi da haɗinkan malamai (na addini). Bada daɗewa ba makarantun Islamiyya sun yawaita a duk faɗin duniyar Musulunci, wanda hakan ya taimaka wajen yaɗa ilimin addinin Musulunci fiye da birane da kuma haɗakan al'ummomin Musulunci daban-daban wajen gudanar da aikin al'adu tare. Madrasas sun sadaukar da kansu musamman don nazarin shari'ar Musulunci, amma kuma suna bada wasu darussa kamar tauhidi, likitanci, da lissafi.[1] Tarihi ya nuna cewa musulmi sun gada daga wayewar zamani kafin zuwan Musulunci, kamar falsafa da likitanci, waɗanda suka kira “ilimin magabata” ko “ilimi na hankali” daga ilimin addinin Musulunci. Ilimin kimiyya na tsohon nau'in ya bunƙasa tsawon ƙarni da yawa, kuma watsu warsu ta zama wani ɓangare na tsarin ilimi acikin Islama na gargajiya da na da. A wasu lokuta, cibiyoyi irinsu House of Hikima a Bagadaza suna tallafa musu, amma sau da yawa ana watsasu ta hanyar koyarwa daga malami zuwa ɗalibi.[2]

Etymology

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A Larabci ana amfani da kalmomi uku don ilimi. Kalmar da akafi sani da ita, ita ce ta'lim, daga tushen' alima, ma'ana sani, sani, fahimta da koyo. Wani lafazin kuma shine Tarbiya daga tushen raba, wanda ke nufin habɓaka ruhi da ɗabi'a bisa yardar Allah. Kalma ta uku ita ce Ta'dib daga tushen aduba, wanda ke nufin zama, al'ada ko kuma daidai a cikin halayen zaman takewa.

Ilimi a Musulunci kafin zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Matsakaicin nassi da nazarin sa a cikin al'adar Musulunci ya taimaka wajen mayar da ilimi shine ginshikin addini a kusan kowane lokaci da wurare a tarihin Musulunci. Muhimmancin ilmantarwa a cikin al'adar Musulunci yana bayyana a cikin hadisai da dama da aka jingina ga Muhammad, ciki harda wanda ya umurci muminai da "neman ilimi, harma a kasar Sin".[2] An ga wannan umarni yana aiki musamman ga malamai, amma harma da sauran al'ummar musulmi, kamar yadda ya bayyana a cikin lafazin Al-Zarnuji, "An wajabta ilimi a gare mu duka".[2] Duk da cewa ba za'a iya kididdige yawan karatu a cikin al’ummomin Musulunci kafin zamaninsu ba, kusan tabbas sunyi yawa, akalla idan aka kwatanta da takwarorinsu na Turai.[2]

An fara wa'azin da aka shirya a Masallacin Al-Azhar na Alkahira a shekara ta 978.

Ilimi zai farane tun yana karami tare da karatun larabci da alqur'ani ko dai a gida ko kuma a makarantar firamare, wanda galibi ana manne da masallaci. Daga nan sai wasu dalibai za su ci gaba da horar da tafsiri (tafsirin Alqur'ani) da fiqhu (hukuncin shari'a), wanda ake ganin yana da matukar muhimmanci.[2] Ilimi ya mayar da hankali kan haddar, amma kuma ya horar da ƙwararrun ɗalibai don shiga a matsayin masu karatu da marubuta a cikin al'adar sharhi kan rubutun da aka yi nazari.[2] Haka kuma ya shafi tsarin zamantakewar malamai masu kishin kasa, wadanda suka fito daga kusan dukkanin al’umma, zuwa cikin manyan malamai.[2]

Daular Musulunci, wacce ta shafe kusan shekaru 1,000, ta ga a kalla manyan cibiyoyi 60 na koyo a Gabas ta Tsakiya da Arewacin Afirka, wasu daga cikin fitattun wadannan su ne Bagadaza a Gabas da Cordoba a Yamma.[3] A farkon ƙarni na farko na Musulunci, tsarin ilimi gaba daya bai zama na yau da kullun ba, amma tun daga karni na 11 da 12, masu mulki suka fara kafa cibiyoyin ilimi na addini da aka fi sani da madrasa a kokarin neman tallafi da hadin kan malamai. Bada da ɗewa ba, makarantun Islamiyya sun karu a duk fadin duniyar Musulunci, wanda ya taimaka wajen yada ilimin addinin Musulunci fiye da birane da kuma hada kan al'ummomin Musulunci daban-daban a cikin aikin al'adu tare.[2] Duk da haka, koyarwar ta kasance ta mai da hankali kan alaƙar ɗaiɗaikun ɗalibi da malaminsu.[2] Shaidar tazarar ilimi, ijaza, wani malami ne ya ba da ita maimakon cibiyar, kuma ta sanya mai riƙe ta a cikin zuriyar malamai, wanda shine kawai matsayi da aka sani a cikin tsarin ilimi.[2] Yayin da karatu na yau da kullun a makarantun madrasa ya kasance ga maza kawai, mata na fitattun iyalai na birni sun kasance suna karatu a wurare masu zaman kansu kuma da yawa daga cikinsu sun karɓi ijaza kuma daga baya sun ba da ijaza a cikin karatun hadisi, ƙira da karatun waƙa.[4][5] Matan dake aiki sun koyi karatun addini da fasaha na musamman daga juna, kodayake sun kuma sami wasu koyarwa tare da maza a masallatai da gidajen keɓaɓɓu.[4]

Tun daga karni na 8 zuwa karni na 12, tsarin farko na samun ilimi a duniyar Musulunci ya kasance daga malamai masu zaman kansu na iyalai masu hannu da shuni wadanda suke iya samun kudin karatun boko, ba makaranta ba. Wannan ilimi na yau da kullun ya fi samuwa ga mambobin kotunan halifa ciki har da masu mulki, da jami'an gudanarwa, da masu arziki. Waɗannan malamai masu zaman kansu sanannun malamai ne waɗanda suka koyar da ɗalibansu Larabci, adabi, addini, lissafi, da falsafa.[6] Al'adar Sassaniya ta Musulunci ta yaba da ra'ayin 'mai mulki adali' ko kuma sarkin da ya koya ta hanyoyin falsafa.[6] Wannan ra'ayi na 'sarki masanin falsafar wayewa' ya kasance mai ingiza yaduwar ilimi ga jama'a.

Madrasas sun sadaukar da kansu ga nazarin shari'a, amma kuma sun ba da wasu batutuwa kamar su tiyoloji, likitanci, da lissafi.[1][7] Gidan madrasa yakan kunshi masallaci, gidan kwana, da dakin karatu.[1] Wani wakafi ne ya kula da shi, wanda ke biyan albashin malaman jami'o'i, da alawus-alawus na dalibai, da kuma tauye kudin gini da kula da su.[1] Makarantar ta kasance ba kamar kwalejin zamani ba domin ba ta da ingantacciyar manhaja ko tsarin tantancewa.[1]

Ilimin Madrasa ya koyar da likitanci da ilmin harhada magunguna da farko a kan ilimin barkwanci. Likitan Girkanci Hippocrates an yaba da shi don haɓaka ka'idar humor guda huɗu, wanda kuma aka sani da ilimin halin ɗan adam.[8] Abubuwan ban dariya suna tasiri lafiyar jiki da motsin rai kuma an yi tunanin cewa rashin lafiya da cututtuka sun samo asali ne daga rashin daidaituwa a cikin rahan mutum, kuma lafiyar za ta iya dawowa ne kawai ta hanyar nemo ma'auni na ban dariya ta hanyar maganin abinci ko zubar da jini.[6][8] Ana tsammanin kowane abin dariya yana da alaƙa da wani abu na duniya kuma kowane abin dariya yana bayyana takamaiman kaddarorin. Haɗin kai na tasirin kowane mutum na kowane ɗan wasa a jiki ana kiransa mizādj.[9] Black Bile yana da alaƙa da sinadari na ƙasa kuma yana bayyana yanayin sanyi da bushewa, bile na rawaya yana da alaƙa da wuta sannan ya bushe da dumi, phlegm yana da alaƙa da ruwa kuma yana bayyana kaddarorin ɗanɗano da sanyi, kuma jini shine iska mai nuna ɗanɗano da halaye masu dumi.[10]

To aid in medical efforts to fight disease and sickness, Ibn Sina also known as Avicenna, wrote the Canon of Medicine. This was a five-book encyclopedia compilation of Avicenna's research towards healing illnesses, and it was widely used for centuries across Eurasia as a medical textbook.[8] Many of Avicenna's ideas came from al-Razi's al-Hawi.

Musulmi sun banbanta darussa da suka gada daga wayewar zamani kafin zuwan Musulunci, kamar falsafa da likitanci, wadanda suka kira “ilimin zamanin da” ko “ilimi na hankali” daga ilimin addinin Musulunci. Ilimin kimiyya na tsohon nau'in ya bunƙasa tsawon ƙarni da yawa, kuma watsawarsu ta zama wani ɓangare na tsarin ilimi a cikin Islama na gargajiya da na da.[2] A wasu lokuta, cibiyoyi irin su House of Wisdom a Bagadaza suna tallafa musu, amma galibi ana yada su ta hanyar koyarwa daga malami zuwa ɗalibi.[2]

Jami'ar al-Qarawiyyin, wacce aka kafa a shekara ta 859 AD, tana cikin littafin Guinness Book of Records a matsayin jami'a mafi tsufa da ta ba da digiri a duniya. Wani lokaci malamai suna kiran Jami'ar al-Qarawiyyin (sunan da aka ba da a 1963), wanda Fatima al-Fihri ta kafa a matsayin masallaci a 859, jami'a, [11][12][13] duk da cewa wasu malamai kamar Jacques Verger. ya rubuta cewa ana yin hakan ne don jin daɗin ilimi.[14] Malamai da dama suna ganin cewa an kafa al-Qarawiyyin kuma yana gudanar da[15] [16][17] a matsayin makarantar makaranta har zuwa bayan yakin duniya na biyu. Sun bayyana lokacin da aka mayar da makarantar al-Qarawiyyin zuwa jami'a zuwa ga sake tsarinta na zamani a 1963.[15] Bayan waɗannan sauye-sauyen, al-Qarawiyyin a hukumance an sake masa suna "Jami'ar Al Quaraouiyine" shekaru biyu bayan haka.[18] Jami'ar Al-Azhar wata jami'a ce ta farko (madrasa). Madrasa na daya daga cikin abubuwan tarihin khalifancin Fatimid. Fatimidawan sun samo asali ne daga zuriyarsu ga 'yar Muhammadu Fatimah kuma suka sanya wa cibiyar suna ta hanyar amfani da wani nau'in sunanta mai daraja Al-Zahra (mai hazaka).[19] An fara wa'azin da aka tsara a Masallacin Azhar a shekara ta 978.

Ka'idojin Ilimin Musulunci

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madarasa na masallacin Jamia Masjid a Srirangapatna, India

Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas ya bayyana manufar Musulunci na ilimi a matsayin daidaitaccen girma na jimillar mutumtaka ta hanyar horar da ruhi, hankali, ji da ji na jiki ta yadda ban gaskiya ke shiga cikin dukkan mutumci.

Daya daga cikin fitattun mutane a tarihin ilimin Musulunci, Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali ya karanci ilimin tauhidi da ilimi a matakin fahimta a karshen shekarun 1000, farkon shekarun 1100 miladiyya. Ɗaya daga cikin ra'ayoyin da aka fi sani da Al-Ghazali da shi shine yadda ya jaddada mahimmancin haɗa fannonin ilimi a matakin koyarwa da na falsafa. Da wannan ne Al-Ghazali ya shigar da addini sosai a cikin tsarin koyarwarsa, yana mai imani cewa babbar manufar ilimi ita ce shiryawa da zaburar da mutum wajen shiga cikin koyarwar Musulunci da aminci. Seyyed Hossein Nasr ya bayyana cewa, yayin da ilimi ke shirya dan Adam don samun farin ciki a wannan rayuwa, "manufansa na karshe shi ne gidan dawwama kuma dukkan ilimi yana nuni zuwa ga madawwamin duniya".

A tsarin Musulunci, abubuwa uku ne da suka haɗada tarbiyyar Musulunci. Waɗannan su ne masu koyo, ilimi, da hanyoyin koyarwa. Musulunci ya bayyana cewa mutane sun kebanta da dukkan halittu wajen iya samun Aql. A cewar Nahj al-Balagha, ilimi nau'i biyu ne: ilimi kawai ji da abinda aka nutsu. Na farko ba ya da wani amfani sai an shanye shi. Ilimin da aka ji ana samunsa ne daga waje dayan kuma ya nutsu yana nufin ilimin da ya taso daga ɗabi'a da ɗabi'un ɗan adam, wanda ake nuni da ƙarfin bidi'a na mutum.

Alqur'ani shine mafi kyawun tushen ilimi a cikin ilimin Musulunci. Don koyar da hadisai na Alkur'ani, Maktab a matsayin makarantar firamare ta ɓullo a cikin masallatai, gidaje masu zaman kansu, shaguna, tantuna, harma da waje. Maza da mata ne ke karatun Alqur'ani a wuraren da aka lissafa a sama, dukda haka, ba koyaushe ake ba mata izinin karatu a masallatai ba. Babban wurin karatun mata kafin masallatai su canza aƙidar su shine a gidajen su ko kuma gidan wasu. Wata sananniyar mace da ta bar wasu su shigo gidanta don koyar da hadisai na Kur'ani ita ce Khadija, matar Muhammad.

Ƙungiyar Hadin Kan Musulunci ta shirya tarurrukan tarurrukan ilimi guda biyar: a Makka (1977), Islamabad (1980), Dhaka (1981), Jakarta (1982), da Alkahira (1987).

Ilimin zamani a Musulunci

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Gaba ɗaya, ƙungiyoyin addinai marasa rinjaye galibi suna da ilimi fiye da yawancin ƙungiyoyin addini na ƙasar, har ma fiye da haka idan yawancin ƴan tsirarun baƙi ne. Wannan yanayin ya shafi Musulunci: Musulmai a Arewacin Amurka sunfi kiristoci yawan karatun boko na shekaru. Bugu da ƙari kuma, Kiristoci suna da ƙarin ilimi na shekaru a yawancin ƙasashen musulmi, kamar a yankin kudu da hamadar Sahara. [20] Koyaya, matsakaicin ilimi na duniya ya yi ƙasa da ƙasa ga Musulmai fiye da Yahudawa, Kirista, Buddha da mutanen da ba su da alaƙa da addini.[21] A duniya, Musulmai da Hindu sun kasance suna da mafi ƙarancin shekaru na makaranta. Duk da haka, matasa musulmi sun sami babban ci gaba a ilimi fiye da sauran ƙungiyoyin.[21]

Akwai ra'ayi na babban giɓin jinsi a yawancin ƙasashen Musulunci, amma ba haka lamarin yake ba. A haƙiƙa, ingancin ilimin mata yana da alaƙa da abubuwan tattalin arziki fiye da abubuwan addini.[22] Ko da yake giɓin jinsi a ilimi na gaske ne, amma yana ci gaba da raguwa a cikin 'yan shekarun nan. Mata a cikin dukkanin ƙungiyoyin addini sun sami babban ci gaban ilimi kwatankwacin ƙarnukan baya fiye da maza.

Mu’amalar da ƙasashen Turai ke yiwa musulmi ya sauya a cikin ‘yan shekarun da suka gabata, inda ƙasashe da dama suka samar da wasu sababbin dokoki game da koyarwa tare da nuna son zuciya da aka fara a ƙarshen ƙarni na ashirin. Duk da haka, ba tare da la'akari da waɗannan canje-canje ba, wasu matakan rashin daidaituwa a cikin damar samun ilimi har yanzu suna da yawa. A Ingila, akwai makarantun musulmi guda biyar kacal da gwamnati ke samun tallafi; wannan ya bambanta da makarantun Kirista 4,716 da jihohi ke samun tallafi.[23] Duk da haka, akwai kusan makarantu masu zaman kansu 100 na musulmi waɗanda zasu iya bada koyarwa kan ilimin addini ba tare da Tsarin Manhajar Ƙasa ba. A daya bangaren kuma a ƙasar Faransa akwai makarantu masu zaman kansu guda biyu na musulmi. Akwai makarantun musulmi masu zaman kansu guda 30 a ƙasar Netherlands.[23] Wannan dai na faruwa ne duk da cewa musulmi sune na biyu a yawan mabiya addinai a Turai, bayan kiristanci, inda ake gudanar da mafi yawansu a Turkiyya (99%) da Albaniya (70%).[23]

Pesantren makarantun allo ne na Islama da ake samu a ƙasashen musulmi kamar Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand da Philippines. Ire-iren wadannan makarantu sun sha suka saboda halin da suke da shi na mayar da hankali kan batutuwan addini fiye da darussan makaranta, kuma a haƙiƙa, pesantren ya koyar da ilimin addini da farko har zuwa karshen 1970s.[24] Saboda wannan mayar da hankali ne wasu ke zargin waɗannan makarantu da cewa sune ginshiƙin tsattsauran ra'ayin Musulunci da ta'addanci.[25] Wasu kuma na cewa pesantren suna koyar da darussa na boko dai-dai da kowace makaranta, tare da jagorantar ɗalibai daga tsattsauran ra'ayi ta hanyar ilimi da kuma buɗe kofa ga matasa musulmi na kowane fanni don shiga manyan makarantun gaba da sakandare da kuma shiga cikin fannoni kamar likitanci, shari'a, da dai sauransu. ilimin kimiyya. [24]

Bayan 1975 gyare-gyaren da gwamnatin Indonesiya tayi, a yau yawancin pesantren sun haɗada madrasas. Mawaƙiya musulma kuma ɗan gwagwarmayar siyasa Emha Ainun Najib yayi karatu a ɗaya daga cikin shahararrun pesantren, mai suna Gontor. Sauran fitattun tsofaffin daliban sun hada da Hidayat Nur Wahid, Hasyim Muzadi, da Abu Bakr Ba'asyir.[24]

Mata a ilimin Musulunci

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Masallacin Ilmi a Katafaren Alkahira

Yayin da karatu na yau da kullun a makarantun madrasa ya kasance ga maza kawai, matan fitattun iyalai na birni sun kasance suna samun ilimi a wurare masu zaman kansu kuma da yawa daga cikinsu sun sami ijaza (difloma) kuma daga baya sun ba da ijaza (difloma) a cikin karatun hadisi, ƙira da karatun waƙa. Matan da ke aiki sun koyi karatun addini da fasaha na aiki da farko daga juna, kodayake sun kuma sami wasu koyarwa tare da maza a masallatai da gidajen keɓaɓɓu.

Daya daga cikin manya-manyan rawar da mata suka taka wajen tarbiyya a Musulunci ita ce ta muhadditha. Muhaddithas mata ne masu ba da labari, koyarwa, ayyuka, da kalmomin Muhammad suna ƙara wa isnadi ta hanyar nazari da rikodin hadisai. Domin mace ko namiji su fito da hadisai, dole ne su fara rike ijazah, ko wani nau'i na izini, wanda sau da yawa malami ya ba da shi daga karatun sirri ba daga madrasa ba, yana ba da izinin muhaddith/muhadditha don watsa nassi na musamman. Daga cikin manyan Muhadditha akwai Zainab bint al-Kamal wacce ta shahara da tarin hadisai masu yawa, A’isha bint Abubakar ita ce matar Muhammadu ta uku kuma ta yi karatun hadisi tun tana ‘yar shekara hudu. [26] A'isha ta kasance sananne kuma ana girmama ta a kan tsatson malamai da kuma ijaza ta ba ta damar gabatar da bayanai daga tarin Sahih na Bukhari, Sira na Ibn Hashim, da kuma sassan Dhamm al-Kalam daga al-Hawari.[26] Rabi’a Khatun, ‘yar uwar sarkin Ayyubid Sultan Salah al-Din, ta biya kudade don tallafawa aikin gina madrasa a birnin Damascus, duk da cewa ba a nada mata mukaman koyarwa a makarantar.[26] Saboda irin gudunmawar da Rabi’a Khatun ta bayar a Damascus ya sa harkar zirga-zirgar malamai ta karu sosai a yankin kuma shigar mata malamai ya karu. A sakamakon haka, shigar mata cikin yada hadisi ma ya karu.[26]

Daga cikin fagagen da aka karɓi ra'ayin mutum na wauta da kuma sanya shi a matsayin ingantacciyar koyarwar Musulunci a tsawon tarihi sun haɗada batutuwan da suka shafi matsayin mata a ilimin Musulunci. A wasu wuraren, matan musulmi sunfi tauye ilimi, duk da cewa wannan ba koyarwar da aka ambata bace a cikin Alqur’ani ko Hadisi.

Duba kuma

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Manazarta

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Empty citation (help)
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named berkey-ed
  3. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Empty citation (help)
  5. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :3
  7. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :4
  9. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :5
  10. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  11. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  12. ↑ Joseph, S, and Najmabadi, A. Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Economics, education, mobility, and space. Brill, 2003, p. 314.
  13. ↑ Swartley, Keith. Encountering the World of Islam. Authentic, 2005, p. 74.
  14. ↑ A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2003, 35
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Belhachmi, Zakia: "Gender, Education, and Feminist Knowledge in al-Maghrib (North Africa) – 1950–70", Journal of Middle Eastern and North African Intellectual and Cultural Studies, Vol. 2–3, 2003, pp. 55–82 (65):

    The Adjustments of Original Institutions of the Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in two different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al-Maghrib. The first type was derived from the fusion of old madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university under the supervision of the ministry of education in 1963.
  16. ↑ Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R.: "Madrasa", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition, Brill, 2010:

    Madrasa, in modern usage, the name of an institution of learning where the Islamic sciences are taught, i.e. a college for higher studies, as opposed to an elementary school of traditional type (kuttab); in medieval usage, essentially a college of law in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were ancillary subjects only.
  17. ↑ Makdisi, George: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", Studia Islamica, No. 32 (1970), pp. 255–264 (255f.):

    In studying an institution which is foreign and remote in point of time, as is the case of the medieval madrasa, one runs the double risk of attributing to it characteristics borrowed from one's own institutions and one's own times. Thus gratuitous transfers may be made from one culture to the other, and the time factor may be ignored or dismissed as being without significance. One cannot therefore be too careful in attempting a comparative study of these two institutions: the madrasa and the university. But in spite of the pitfalls inherent in such a study, albeit sketchy, the results which may be obtained are well worth the risks involved. In any case, one cannot avoid making comparisons when certain unwarranted statements have already been made and seem to be currently accepted without question. The most unwarranted of these statements is the one which makes of the "madrasa" a "university".
  18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Lulat 2005, 154–157
  19. ↑ Halm, Heinz. The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning. London: The Institute of Ismaili Studies and I.B. Tauris. 1997.
  20. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :1
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :0
  22. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :2
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Empty citation (help)
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Empty citation (help)
  25. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :6
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ilimi_a_Musulunci&oldid=337237"