Magunguna
Magunguna shine kimiyya da kuma aiki [1] na kula da marasa lafiya, sarrafa ganewar asali, hangen nesa, rigakafi, magani, warware rauni su ko cututtuka, da inganta lafiyarsu su. Magunguna sun ƙunshi ayyuka daban-daban na kiwon lafiya waɗanda suka samo asali don kiyayewa da dawo da lafiya ta hanyar rigakafi da maganin rashin lafiya. magunguna zamani suna amfani da kimiyyar kiwon lafiya, bincike na kiwon lafiya (biomedical research), kwayoyin halitta, da Fasahar kiwon lafiya don ganowa, magancewa, da hana rauni da cututtuka, yawanci ta hanyar magunguna ko tiyata, amma kuma ta hanyar warkewa daban-daban kamar psychotherapy, splints na waje da traction, na'urorin kiwon lafiya.[2]
An yi amfani da magani tun zamanin da ba a san shi ba, kuma a mafi yawan wannan lokacin fasaha ne (wani yanki na kerawa da ƙwarewa), sau da yawa yana da alaƙa da imani na addini da falsafar al'adun yankin. Misali, wani likita zai yi amfani da ganye kuma ya yi addu'o'i don warkarwa, ko kuma wani masanin falsafa da likita na dā zai yi amfani le jini bisa ga ka'idodin ban dariya. A cikin ƙarni na baya-bayan nan, tun zuwan kimiyya ta zamani, yawancin magani sun zama haɗuwa da fasaha da kimiyya (duka asali da aikace-aikace, a ƙarƙashin laima na kimiyyar likita). Misali, yayin da fasahar sutura ta zama fasaha da aka koya ta hanyar aiki, sanin abin da ke faruwa a matakin salula da kwayoyin a cikin kyallen da ake sutura ya taso ne ta hanyar kimiyya.
Hanyoyin magani na pre-cientific, wanda yanzu aka sani da maganin gargajiya ko maganin gargajiya, ana amfani da shi ba tare da maganin kimiyya ba kuma ana kiransu madadin magani. Sauran jiyya a waje da maganin kimiyya tare da damuwa na ɗabi'a, aminci da inganci ana kiransu quackery.
Magana
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Magunguna (: /ˈmɛdsɪn/ i, US: /ˈmeredɪsɪn/i) kimiyya ce da aikin ganewar asali, hangen nesa, magani, da rigakafi Cutar. Kalmar "magunguna" ta samo asali ne daga Latin medicus, ma'ana " likita". Kalmar "physical" kanta, daga abin da "physician" ya samo asali, tsohuwar kalmar ce ga abin da yanzu ake kira magani, da kuma fagen magani.
Ayyukan asibiti
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Samun kiwon lafiya da aikin asibiti sun bambanta a duk faɗin duniya saboda bambance-bambance na yanki a cikin al'adu da fasaha. Magungunan kimiyya na zamani sun bunƙasa sosai a Yammacin duniya, yayin da a Kasashe masu tasowa kamar wasu sassan Afirka ko Asiya, yawan jama'a na iya dogaro da maganin gargajiya tare da iyakantaccen shaida da inganci kuma babu horo na yau da kullun ga masu aiki.
A cikin kasashe masu tasowa, ba a amfani da maganin da ke da tushe a duk duniya a cikin aikin asibiti; alal misali, binciken da aka yi a shekara ta 2007 na sake dubawa ya gano cewa kusan kashi 49% na tsoma baki ba su da isasshen shaida don tallafawa ko dai fa'ida ko lahani.[3]
A cikin aikin asibiti na zamani, likitoci da mataimakan likitoci suna tantance marasa lafiya don ganowa, haɓaka, magani, da hana cututtuka ta amfani da hukunci na asibiti. Dangantakar likita da mai haƙuri yawanci tana farawa tare da hulɗa tare da nazarin Tarihin kiwon lafiya na mai haƙuri da rikodin kiwon lafiya, sannan kuma hira ta likita da gwajin jiki. Ana amfani da na'urorin kiwon lafiya na asali (misali, stethoscope, mai rage harshe) yawanci. Bayan bincika alamomi da yin hira da alamomi, likita na iya ba da umarnin gwajin likita (misali, Gwajin jini), yin biopsy, ko rubuta magunguna ko wasu magunguna. Hanyoyin ganewar asali daban-daban suna taimakawa wajen kawar da yanayin bisa ga bayanin da aka bayar. A lokacin gamuwa, sanar da mai haƙuri yadda ya kamata game da duk abubuwan da suka dace wani muhimmin bangare ne na dangantaka da ci gaban amincewa. Ana yin rikodin gamuwar likita a cikin rikodin likita, wanda shine takardar doka a yankuna da yawa.[4] Bincike na iya zama ɗan gajeren amma ya bi wannan tsari na gaba ɗaya, kuma ƙwararru suna bin irin wannan tsari. Binciken da magani na iya ɗaukar 'yan mintoci kaɗan ko 'yan makonni, dangane da rikitarwa na batun.
- Babban korafi (CC): dalilin ziyarar likita ta yanzu. Waɗannan su ne alamun. Suna cikin kalmomin mai haƙuri kuma ana rubuta su tare da tsawon lokaci na kowannensu. Har ila yau ana kiranta Babban damuwa ko gabatar da korafi.
- Ayyuka na yanzu: sana'a, abubuwan sha'awa, abin da mai haƙuri ke yi.
- Tarihin iyali (FH): jerin cututtukan da ke cikin iyali waɗanda zasu iya shafar mai haƙuri. Ana amfani da itacen iyali a wasu lokuta.
- Tarihin rashin lafiya na yanzu (HPI): tsari na lokaci-lokaci na abubuwan da suka faru na alamun bayyanar cututtuka da ƙarin bayani game da kowane alama. Ana iya rarrabe shi daga tarihin rashin lafiya na baya, sau da yawa ana kiransa tarihin kiwon lafiya na baya (PMH). Tarihin kiwon lafiya ya ƙunshi HPI da PMH.
- Magunguna (Rx): waɗanne magungunan da mai haƙuri ke ɗauka ciki har da waɗanda aka ba da umarni, da Magungunan gida, da kuma madadin Magungunan ganye ko magunguna. Hakanan ana yin rikodin rashin lafiyan.
- Tarihin kiwon lafiya na baya (PMH / PMHx): matsalolin kiwon lafiya a lokaci guda, asibiti da ayyukan da suka gabata, raunin, Cututtukan cututtuka ko allurar rigakafi, tarihin sanannun rashin lafiyan.
- binciken tsarin (ROS) ko bincike na tsarin: saitin ƙarin tambayoyin da za a yi tambaya, wanda za'a iya rasa shi a kan HPI: bincike na gaba ɗaya (kun lura da duk wani asarar nauyi, canji a cikin ingancin bacci, zazzabi, kumfa da bumps? da dai sauransu), sannan tambayoyi game da manyan tsarin jikin jiki (zuciya, huhu, hanyar narkewa, hanyar fitsari, da dai sauransu).
- Tarihin zamantakewa (SH): wurin haihuwa, mazauna, tarihin aure, matsayi na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki, halaye (ciki har da abinci, magunguna, taba, barasa).
Binciken jiki shine binciken mai haƙuri don alamun kiwon lafiya na cututtukan da ke da ma'ana kuma ana iya lura da su, sabanin alamun da mai haƙuri ya ba da kansu kuma ba lallai ba ne a lura da su.[5] Mai ba da kiwon lafiya yana amfani da gani, ji, taɓawa, kuma wani lokacin ƙanshi (misali, a cikin kamuwa da cuta, Uremia, ketoacidosis na ciwon sukari). Ayyuka huɗu sune tushen jarrabawar jiki: bugawa, palpation (ji), percussion (taɓawa don ƙayyade halaye na resonance), da auscultation (sauraron), gabaɗaya a cikin wannan tsari, kodayake auscultation yana faruwa kafin percussion da palpation don kimantawa na ciki.[6]
Binciken asibiti ya haɗa da nazarin: [7]
- Abdomen da rectum
- Cardiovascular (zuciya da jijiyoyin jini)
- Bayyanar mai haƙuri da takamaiman alamun cutar (yanayin abinci mai gina jiki, kasancewar jaundice, pallor ko clubbing)
- Genitalia (da ciki idan mai haƙuri yana da ciki ko zai iya kasancewa da ciki)
- Kai, ido, kunne, hanci, da makogwaro (HEENT) [7]
- Musculoskeletal (ciki har da kashin baya da iyaka)
- Neurological (sanin, wayar da kan jama'a, kwakwalwa, hangen nesa, jijiyoyin kwakwalwa, kashin baya da jijiyoyin gefe)
- Psychiatric (daidaitawa, yanayin tunani, yanayi, shaidar rashin fahimta ko tunani).
- Rashin numfashi (babban hanyoyin iska da huhu) [7]
- Fata
- Alamomi masu mahimmanci ciki har da tsawo, nauyi, zafin jiki, Hawan jini, bugun jini, saurin numfashi, da satar iskar oxygen ta haemoglobin [7]
Wataƙila zai mai da hankali kan wuraren da aka nuna a tarihin kiwon lafiya kuma bazai haɗa da duk abin da aka jera a sama ba.
Shirin magani na iya haɗawa da yin odar ƙarin gwaje-gwaje na dakin gwaje-gaje na likita da nazarin hotunan likita, fara magani, turawa ga kwararre, ko lura mai lura. Ana iya ba da shawarar bin diddigin. Dangane da shirin inshorar kiwon lafiya da tsarin kulawa mai sarrafawa, nau'o'i daban-daban na "bincike na amfani", kamar izinin gwaje-gwaje na farko, na iya sanya shingen kan samun dama ga ayyuka masu tsada.[8]
Tsarin yanke shawara na likita (MDM) ya haɗa da bincike da kira na duk bayanan da ke sama don fitowa da jerin yiwuwar ganewar asali (bincike na bambanci), tare da ra'ayin abin da ake buƙatar a yi don samun tabbataccen ganewar asali wanda zai bayyana matsalar mai haƙuri.
A ziyarar da ta biyo baya, ana iya maimaita wannan tsari a taƙaice don samun kowane sabon tarihi, alamomi, binciken jiki, dakin gwaje-gwaje ko sakamakon hoto, ko shawarwari na kwararru.
Cibiyoyin
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Ana gudanar da magani na zamani, gabaɗaya, a cikin Tsarin kiwon lafiya. Shari'a, takaddun shaida, da tsarin kuɗi an kafa su ne ta hanyar gwamnatoci, wanda kungiyoyin kasa da kasa suka kara a wasu lokuta, kamar majami'u. Halayen kowane tsarin kiwon lafiya da aka ba su suna da tasiri sosai a kan hanyar da ake ba da kiwon lafiya.
Tun daga zamanin d ̄ a, karfafawa na Kirista kan aikin sadaka ya haifar da ci gaban aikin jinya da asibitoci, kuma Cocin Katolika a yau ya kasance mafi girma mai ba da sabis na kiwon lafiya a duniya. Kasashen masana'antu masu ci gaba (ban da Amurka) [9] [10] da kuma kasashe masu tasowa da yawa suna ba da sabis na kiwon lafiya ta hanyar tsarin kiwon lafiya na duniya wanda ke da niyyar tabbatar da kulawa ga kowa ta hanyar tsarin kula da kiwon lafiya mai biyan kuɗi ɗaya ko inshorar kiwon lafiya masu zaman kansu ko hadin gwiwa. An yi niyyar wannan ne don tabbatar da cewa dukkan jama'a suna da damar samun kulawa ta likita bisa ga buƙata maimakon ikon biyan kuɗi. Bayarwar na iya zama ta hanyar ayyukan kiwon lafiya masu zaman kansu, asibitoci da asibitocin gwamnati, ko kungiyoyin agaji, galibi haɗuwa da duka uku.
Yawancin al'ummomin kabilanci ba su ba da tabbacin kiwon lafiya ga yawan jama'a gaba ɗaya. A cikin irin waɗannan al'ummomin, kiwon lafiya yana samuwa ga waɗanda za su iya biyan kuɗin, sun inshora da kansu (ko dai kai tsaye ko a matsayin wani ɓangare na kwangilar aiki), ko kuma ana iya rufe su da kulawa da gwamnati ko kabilar ke tallafawa kai tsaye.
Bayyanawa na bayanai wani abu ne da ke bayyana tsarin isar da kayayyaki. Samun bayanai game da yanayi, jiyya, inganci, da farashi yana shafar zaɓin marasa lafiya / masu amfani kuma, sabili da haka, abubuwan da masu sana'a ke motsawa. Duk da yake tsarin kiwon lafiya na Amurka ya shiga cikin wuta saboda rashin budewa, [11] sabon doka na iya karfafa budewa mafi girma. Akwai tashin hankali tsakanin buƙatar nuna gaskiya a gefe guda da kuma batutuwan kamar sirrin haƙuri da yiwuwar amfani da bayanai don samun riba ta kasuwanci a ɗayan.
Kwararrun masu kiwon lafiya da ke ba da kulawa a cikin magani sun ƙunshi sana'o'i da yawa, kamar likitoci, ma'aikatan jinya, masu ilimin halayyar dan adam. Wadannan sana'o'i za su sami nasu ka'idojin ɗabi'a, ilimi na sana'a, da kuma jikin. An tsara sana'ar kiwon lafiya daga hangen nesa na zamantakewa.
Bayarwa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Ana rarraba ba da kulawa ta likita zuwa rukunin kulawa na farko, na biyu, da na uku.[12]
likitoci, mataimakan likitoci, ma'aikatan jinya, ko wasu masu sana'a na kiwon lafiya waɗanda suka fara hulɗa da mai haƙuri da ke neman magani ko kulawa.[13] Wadannan suna faruwa a ofisoshin likitoci, asibitoci, Gidajen tsofaffi, makarantu, ziyarar gida, da sauran wuraren da ke kusa da marasa lafiya. Kimanin kashi 90% na ziyarar likita na iya kula da shi ta hanyar mai ba da kulawa ta farko. Wadannan sun hada da maganin cututtuka masu tsanani da na dogon lokaci, kulawa da rigakafi da ilimin kiwon lafiya ga dukkan shekaru da maza da mata.
Ana ba da sabis na kiwon lafiya na sakandare ta ƙwararrun likitoci a ofisoshin su ko asibitocin su ko a asibitoci na cikin gida don mai haƙuri wanda mai ba da kulawa ta farko ya fara ganowa ko kula da mai haƙuri.[14] Ana ba da izini ga waɗancan marasa lafiya waɗanda ke buƙatar ƙwarewa ko hanyoyin da ƙwararru suka yi. Wadannan sun hada da kulawa da sabis na asibiti, sassan gaggawa, magani mai tsanani, sabis na tiyata, maganin jiki, aiki da isarwa, sassan endoscopy, dakin gwaje-gwaje da sabis na hotunan likita, cibiyoyin kula da marasa lafiya, da dai sauransu. Wasu masu ba da kulawa na farko na iya kula da marasa lafiyar asibiti da kuma isar da jarirai a cikin yanayin kulawa na biyu.
Ana ba da sabis na kiwon lafiya na uku ta hanyar asibitoci masu ƙwarewa ko cibiyoyin yanki waɗanda ke da kayan aiki da wuraren bincike da magani waɗanda ba a samu a asibitocin gida ba. Wadannan sun hada da Cibiyoyin rauni, cibiyoyin kula da ƙonewa, cibiyoyi masu ci gaba da sabis na neonatology, transplantation na gabobin jiki, ciki mai haɗari, radiation oncology, da dai sauransu.
Kula da lafiyar zamani kuma ya dogara da bayanai - har yanzu ana bayar da shi a yawancin saitunan kiwon lafiya akan takarda, amma yana ƙaruwa a zamanin yau ta hanyar lantarki.
A cikin ƙasashe masu karamin karfi, kiwon lafiya na zamani sau da yawa yana da tsada sosai ga matsakaicin mutum. Masu binciken manufofin kiwon lafiya na kasa da kasa sun ba da shawarar cewa a cire "kudin mai amfani" a cikin waɗannan yankuna don tabbatar da samun dama, kodayake har ma bayan cirewa, manyan farashi da shingen sun kasance.[15]
Rabuwa da ba da magani da rarrabawa aiki ne a cikin magani da kantin magani inda likitan da ke ba da takardar magani ya kasance mai zaman kansa daga likitan da ya ba da magani. A kasashen Yammacin duniya akwai ƙarni na al'ada don raba likitoci daga likitoci. A cikin ƙasashen Asiya, al'ada ce ga likitoci su samar da kwayoyi.[16]
Rassan
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Yin aiki tare a matsayin ƙungiya mai haɗari, ƙwararrun Kwararrun masu kiwon lafiya da yawa ban da likitocin likita suna da hannu a cikin isar da kiwon lafiya na zamani. Misalan sun hada da: ma'aikatan jinya, masu kula da lafiyar gaggawa da likitoci, masana kimiyya na dakin gwaje-gwaje, likitocin magunguna, likitoci na jiki, likitojin numfashi, likitofin magana, likitocin aiki, radiographers, masu kulawar abinci, da Injiniyoyin halittu, likitociyar likita, likitota, Mataimakin likitan tiyata, likitan tiyatiko na tiyata.
Yankin da kimiyyar da ke tallafawa maganin ɗan adam sun mamaye wasu fannoni da yawa. Mai haƙuri da aka kwantar da shi a asibiti yawanci yana ƙarƙashin kulawar takamaiman ƙungiyar bisa ga babban matsalar gabatarwar su, misali, ƙungiyar ilimin zuciya, waɗanda za su iya hulɗa da wasu ƙwarewa, misali, tiyata, radiology, don taimakawa ganowa ko magance babban matsala ko duk wani rikitarwa / ci gaba.
Likitoci suna da ƙwarewa da ƙwarewar ƙwarewa a cikin wasu rassan magani, waɗanda aka jera a ƙasa. Akwai bambance-bambance daga ƙasa zuwa ƙasa game da ƙwarewar wasu ƙwarewa suna ciki.
Babban rassan magani sune:
- Kimiyyar kimiyyar magani; wannan shine abin da kowane likita ke karatu, kuma wasu suna komawa cikin Binciken kiwon lafiya.
- Yankuna masu rikitarwa, inda aka haɗa ƙwarewar kiwon lafiya daban-daban don aiki a wasu lokuta.
- Kwarewar kiwon lafiya
Kimiyya ta asali
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- Anatomy shine nazarin tsarin jiki na kwayoyin halitta. Ya bambanta da macroscopic ko gross anatomy, cytology da histology sun damu da tsarin microscopic.
- Biochemistry shine nazarin ilmin sunadarai da ke faruwa a cikin kwayoyin halitta masu rai, musamman tsarin da aikin sunadarai.
- Biomechanics shine nazarin tsarin da aikin tsarin halittu ta hanyar hanyoyin Mechanics.
- Biophysics kimiyya ce ta hadin gwiwa wacce ke amfani da hanyoyin kimiyyar lissafi da ilmin sunadarai na jiki don nazarin tsarin halittu.
- Biostatistics shine aikace-aikacen kididdiga ga fannonin halittu a mafi girman ma'ana. Sanin biostatistics yana da mahimmanci a cikin tsarawa, kimantawa, da fassarar binciken likita. Har ila yau, yana da mahimmanci ga ilmin annoba da kuma maganin da ke da tushe.
- Cytology shine nazarin microscopic na ƙwayoyin halitta.
- Embryology shine nazarin farkon ci gaban kwayoyin halitta.
- Endocrinology shine nazarin hormones da tasirin su a duk jikin dabbobi.
- Epidemiology shine nazarin yawan jama'a na hanyoyin cututtuka, kuma ya haɗa da, amma ba'a iyakance shi ba, nazarin annoba.
- Genetics shine nazarin kwayoyin Halitta, da rawar da suke takawa a cikin gadon halitta.
- Gynecology shine nazarin tsarin haihuwa na mata.
- Histology shine nazarin tsarin ƙwayoyin halitta ta hanyar microscopy mai haske, microscopy na lantarki da immunohistochemistry.
- Immunology shine nazarin Tsarin rigakafi, wanda ya haɗa da tsarin rigakafin da aka haifa da kuma daidaitawa a cikin mutane, alal misali.
- Magungunan salon rayuwa shine nazarin yanayin da ba shi da tsanani, da kuma yadda za a hana, magance su da kuma juyawa su.
- Ilimin kimiyyar kiwon lafiya shine nazarin aikace-aikacen ka'idodin kimiyyar lissafi a cikin magani.
- Microbiology shine nazarin microorganisms, gami da protozoa, ƙwayoyin cuta, fungi, da ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin halitta.
- Ilimin halittu na Kwayoyin halitta shine nazarin tushen kwayoyin halitta na tsarin maimaitawa, fassara da fassarar kayan kwayar halitta.
- Neuroscience ya haɗa da waɗancan fannoni na kimiyya waɗanda ke da alaƙa da nazarin tsarin juyayi. Babban abin da aka mayar da hankali ga kimiyyar kwakwalwa shine ilmin halitta da ilimin lissafi na kwakwalwar mutum da kashin baya. Wasu ƙwarewar asibiti masu alaƙa sun haɗa da neurology, neurosurgery da psychiatry.
- Kimiyya ta <i id="mwAes"></i>Abinci mai gina jiki (mai da hankali) da kuma tsarin abinci (mai da kyau) shine nazarin dangantakar abinci da abin sha da kiwon lafiya da cututtuka, musamman a ƙayyade abinci mafi kyau. Magungunan abinci mai gina jiki na kiwon lafiya ana yin su ne ta hanyar masu kula da abinci kuma ana ba da su don Ciwon sukari, Cututtukan zuciya, nauyi da cututtuken cin abinci, rashin abinci mai gina gina jiki, da cututsin neoplastic.
- Pathology a matsayin kimiyya shine nazarin cututtuka - abubuwan da ke haifar da su, hanya, ci gaba da kuma warware su. –
- Pharmacology shine nazarin kwayoyi da ayyukansu.
- Photobiology shine nazarin hulɗar tsakanin radiation da ba na ionizing ba da kwayoyin halitta.
- Physiology shine nazarin aikin jiki na yau da kullun da kuma hanyoyin sarrafawa.
- Radiobiology shine nazarin hulɗar tsakanin radiation da kwayoyin halitta masu rai.
- Toxicology shine nazarin tasirin haɗari na kwayoyi da guba.
Kwarewa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin ma'anar "magunguna", akwai ƙwarewa daban-daban. A Burtaniya, yawancin ƙwarewa suna da nasu jiki ko kwaleji, wanda ke da nasa jarrabawar shiga. Wadannan an san su gaba ɗaya a matsayin Royal Colleges, kodayake ba dukansu a halin yanzu suna amfani da kalmar "Royal" ba. Ci gaban ƙwarewa sau da yawa ana motsa shi ta hanyar sabuwar fasaha (kamar ci gaban ingantaccen maganin rigakafi) ko hanyoyin aiki (kamar sassan gaggawa); sabon ƙwarewar yana haifar da kafa ƙungiyar likitoci da kuma darajar gudanar da nasu jarrabawar.
A cikin fannonin kiwon lafiya, ƙwarewa yawanci suna shiga cikin ɗayan manyan rukunoni biyu: "Medicine" da "Surgery". "Medicine" yana nufin aikin magani wanda ba na aiki ba, kuma mafi yawan ƙwarewarsa suna buƙatar horo na farko a cikin Magungunan Cikin Gida. A Burtaniya, an tabbatar da wannan ta hanyar wuce jarrabawar membobin Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) ko kwalejin daidai a Scotland ko Ireland. "Aikin tiyata" yana nufin aikin magani na aiki, kuma mafi yawan ƙwarewa a wannan yanki suna buƙatar horo na farko a cikin General Surgery, wanda a Burtaniya ke haifar da zama memba na Royal College of Surgeons of England (MRCS). A halin yanzu, wasu ƙwarewar magani ba su dace da sauƙi a cikin waɗannan rukunoni ba, kamar radiology, pathology, ko anesthesia. Yawancin waɗannan sun fito ne daga ɗayan ko wasu daga cikin sansanonin biyu da ke sama; misali anaesthesia ya fara ne a matsayin bangaren Royal College of Surgeons (wanda za a buƙaci MRCS / FRCS) kafin ya zama Royal College of Anaesthetists kuma ana samun memba na kwalejin ta hanyar zama don jarrabawar Fellowship na Royal College of Anesthetists (FRCA).
Kwarewar tiyata
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Yin tiyata tsohuwar ƙwarewar likita ce wacce ke amfani da jagorar aiki da dabarun kayan aiki a kan mai haƙuri don bincika ko magance yanayin cututtuka kamar cuta ko rauni, don taimakawa inganta aikin jiki ko bayyanar ko gyara wuraren da ba a so (alal misali, drum din kunne). Dole ne likitoci su gudanar da 'yan takarar tiyata kafin tiyata, bayan tiyata, da kuma wadanda za su iya yin tiyata a unguwanni na asibiti. A wasu cibiyoyin, anesthesiology wani bangare ne na rarraba tiyata (don dalilai na tarihi da na dabaru), kodayake ba horo ne na tiyata ba. Sauran ƙwarewar kiwon lafiya na iya amfani da hanyoyin tiyata, kamar ilimin ido da cututtukan fata, amma ba a la'akari da ƙwarewar tiyata ba.
Horar da tiyata a Amurka yana buƙatar akalla shekaru biyar na zama bayan makarantar likita. Ƙananan ƙwarewar tiyata sau da yawa suna buƙatar shekaru bakwai ko fiye. Bugu da kari, zumunci na iya ɗaukar ƙarin shekara ɗaya zuwa uku. Saboda zumunci na bayan zama na iya zama gasa, yawancin masu horo suna ba da ƙarin shekaru biyu don bincike. Don haka a wasu lokuta horo na tiyata ba zai ƙare ba har sai fiye da shekaru goma bayan makarantar likita. Bugu da ƙari, horo na tiyata na iya zama da wahala sosai kuma yana cin lokaci.
Kwarewar tiyata sun haɗa da waɗanda likitan zai iya ƙwarewa bayan ya sami horo na zama na tiyata gaba ɗaya da kuma fannoni da yawa na tiyata tare da horo na zama daban. Ayyukan tiyata na musamman waɗanda mutum zai iya bi bayan horo na tiyata na yau da kullun: [17]
- Aikin tiyata na bariatric
- Aikin tiyata na zuciya - ana iya bi shi ta hanyar hanyar tiyata ta zuciya ta daban
- Aikin tiyata na baya
- Aikin tiyata na endocrine
- Aikin tiyata na gaba ɗaya
- Aikin hannu
- Aikin tiyata na Hepatico-Pancreatico-Biliary
- Aikin tiyata mai saurin kamuwa da cutar
- Aikin yara
- Aikin tiyata na filastik - ana iya bi shi ta hanyar hanyar tiyata ta filastik daban
- Kulawa mai tsanani na tiyata
- Magungunan tiyata
- Aikin tiyata
- Aikin tiyata
- Aikin tiyata na jijiyoyi - ana iya bi shi ta hanyar hanyar tiyata ta jijiyoyi daban
Sauran ƙwarewar tiyata a cikin magani tare da horar da kansu na zama:
- Kimiyyar fata
- Aikin tiyata
- Ilimin ido
- Aikin tiyata na baki da fuska
- Aikin tiyata na ƙashi
- Ilimin ƙwaƙwalwa
- Aikin tiyata na podiatric - ba ku shiga horo a makarantar likita ba, amma a maimakon haka horo daban a makarantar podiatry
- Magungunan fitsari
Kwarewar magani ta ciki
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Magungunan ciki shine ƙwarewar kiwon lafiya da ke hulɗa da rigakafi, ganewar asali, da kuma maganin cututtukan manya. A cewar wasu kafofin, an jaddada tsarin ciki. A Arewacin Amurka, ƙwararrun likitocin ciki ana kiransu "masu ciki". A wasu wurare, musamman a cikin ƙasashen Commonwealth, ana kiran irin waɗannan ƙwararrun likitoci. Wadannan kalmomi, internist ko likita (a cikin ƙayyadadden ma'ana, wanda aka saba da shi a waje da Arewacin Amurka), gabaɗaya sun ware masu aiki da ilimin mata da obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, kuma musamman tiyata da ƙwarewarta.
Saboda marasa lafiya galibi suna fama da rashin lafiya ko kuma suna buƙatar bincike mai rikitarwa, masu kula da marasa lafiya suna yin yawancin ayyukansu a asibitoci. A baya, yawancin masu ba da horo ba su da ƙwarewa; irin waɗannan likitoci na gaba ɗaya za su ga kowane matsala mai rikitarwa ba tare da tiyata ba; wannan salon aikin ya zama wanda ba a saba gani ba. A cikin aikin birane na zamani, yawancin masu sana'a sune ƙwararru: wato, yawanci suna iyakance aikin likita ga matsalolin tsarin jiki ɗaya ko ga wani yanki na ilimin likita. Misali, likitocin gastroenterologists da nephrologists sun ƙware bi da bi a cikin cututtukan hanji da koda.[18]
A cikin Commonwealth of Nations da wasu ƙasashe, ƙwararrun likitocin yara da tsofaffi ana kuma bayyana su a matsayin ƙwararrun likita (ko masu ba da horo) waɗanda suka ƙware ta hanyar shekarun mai haƙuri maimakon tsarin gabobin jiki. A wasu wurare, musamman a Arewacin Amurka, likitan yara na gabaɗaya sau da yawa nau'in kulawa ce ta farko.
Akwai ƙananan ƙwarewa da yawa (ko ƙananan ƙwarewar) na maganin ciki: Horarwa a cikin magani na ciki (kamar yadda ya saba da horo na tiyata), ya bambanta sosai a duk faɗin duniya: duba labaran kan ilimin likita don ƙarin bayani. A Arewacin Amurka, yana buƙatar aƙalla shekaru uku na horo na zama bayan makarantar likita, wanda za'a iya biye da haɗin kai na shekara ɗaya zuwa uku a cikin ƙwarewar da aka jera a sama. Gabaɗaya, lokutan aiki na mazauna a cikin magani ƙasa da waɗanda ke cikin tiyata, matsakaicin kusan awanni 60 a kowane mako a Amurka. Wannan bambancin ba ya aiki a Burtaniya inda doka ta buƙaci dukkan likitoci suyi aiki kasa da awanni 48 a kowane mako a matsakaici.
Kwarewar ganewar asali
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- Kimiyya ta dakin gwaje-gwaje na asibiti sune ayyukan bincike na asibiti waɗanda ke amfani da dabarun dakin gwaje'a don ganewar asali da gudanar da marasa lafiya. A Amurka, waɗannan ayyukan suna ƙarƙashin kulawar likitan cututtuka. Ma'aikatan da ke aiki a cikin waɗannan sassan dakin gwaji-gwaje na likita sune ma'aikatan da aka horar da su da fasaha waɗanda ba su da digiri na likita, amma yawanci suna riƙe da digiri na fasaha na likita, waɗanda a zahiri suna yin gwaje- gwaje-gaje, gwaje-goje, da hanyoyin da ake buƙata don samar da takamaiman ayyuka. Ƙananan ƙwarewa sun haɗa da maganin jini, cututtukan Kwayoyin halitta, ilmin sunadarai na asibiti, ilmin Hematology, ilmin Microbiology na asibiti da ilmin rigakafin asibiti.
- Ilimin kimiyyar kwakwalwa na asibiti yana damuwa da gwada ilimin lissafi ko aiki na bangarorin tsakiya da na waje na tsarin juyayi. Wadannan nau'ikan gwaje-gwaje za a iya raba su cikin rikodin: (1) aikin lantarki na kai tsaye ko ci gaba da gudana, ko (2) martani da aka haifar da motsawa. Ƙananan ƙwarewa sun haɗa da electroencephalography, electromyography,Da yiwuwar da aka yi, Nazarin gudanar da jijiyoyi da polysomnography. Wani lokaci ana yin waɗannan gwaje-gwaje ta hanyar fasaha ba tare da digiri na likita ba, amma fassarar waɗannan gwaje'o'in ƙwararren likita ne ke yin su.
- Radiology na ganewar asali yana damuwa da hotunan jiki, misali ta hanyar x-ray, x-ray computed tomography, Ultrasoundography, da kuma nuclear magnetic resonance tomography. Masu ilimin rediyo na yau da kullun na iya samun damar wurare a cikin jiki a ƙarƙashin hoto don shiga tsakani ko samfurin bincike.
- Magungunan nukiliya suna damuwa da nazarin tsarin gabobin mutum ta hanyar gudanar da abubuwa masu rarraba radiolabelled (radiopharmaceuticals) ga jiki, wanda za'a iya ɗaukar hoto a waje da jiki ta hanyar kyamarar gamma ko na'urar daukar hoto ta PET. Kowane radiopharmaceutical ya kunshi sassa biyu: mai ganowa wanda yake takamaiman don aikin da ake binciken (misali, hanyar neurotransmitter, hanyar metabolism, kwararar jini, ko wasu), da kuma radionuclide (yawanci ko dai mai ba da gamma ko mai ba da positron). Akwai digiri na haɗuwa tsakanin maganin nukiliya da radiology, kamar yadda aka tabbatar da fitowar na'urorin da aka haɗu kamar na'urar daukar hoto ta PET / CT.
- Pathology a matsayin ƙwarewar likita shine reshe na magani wanda ke hulɗa da nazarin cututtuka da canje-canje na jiki da suka samar. A matsayin ƙwarewar bincike, ana iya la'akari da cututtukan a matsayin tushen ilimin likitanci na zamani kuma yana taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin maganin da ke da tushe. Yawancin gwaje-gwaje na kwayoyin zamani kamar su cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, nazarin sake tsara kwayoyin halitta da fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) sun fada cikin yankin cututtukan.
Sauran manyan ƙwarewa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Wadannan sune wasu manyan ƙwarewar kiwon lafiya waɗanda ba su dace kai tsaye cikin ɗayan ƙungiyoyin da aka ambata a sama ba:
- Anesthesiology (wanda aka fi sani da anesthetics): ya damu da gudanar da aikin tiyata na mai haƙuri. Matsayin likitan anesthesiologist a lokacin tiyata shine don hana rikice-rikice a cikin muhimman gabobin (watau kwakwalwa, zuciya, koda) da kuma ciwo bayan tiyata. A waje da dakin aiki, likitan anesthesiology yana aiki iri ɗaya a cikin aikin aiki da kuma isar da shi, kuma wasu suna da ƙwarewa a cikin magani mai mahimmanci.
- Magungunan gaggawa suna damuwa da ganewar asali da magani na cututtukan gaggawa ko masu barazana ga rayuwa, gami da rauni, tiyata, likita, yara, da gaggawa na hankali.
- Magungunan iyali, aikin iyali, aikin yau da kullun ko kulawa ta farko shine, a kasashe da yawa, tashar jiragen ruwa ta farko ga marasa lafiya da ba na gaggawa ba. Likitocin iyali galibi suna ba da sabis a duk faɗin saituna da suka haɗa da ayyukan ofis, ɗaukar sashen gaggawa, kula da marasa lafiya, da kula da gida.
- Kwayoyin kiwon lafiya sun damu da ganewar asali da kuma kula da cututtukan gado.
- Neurology yana damuwa da cututtukan tsarin juyayi. A cikin Burtaniya, ilimin jijiyoyin jiki wani bangare ne na magani na gaba ɗaya.
- Abstetrics da gynecology (sau da yawa an taƙaita su a matsayin OB / GYN (Turanci na Amurka) ko Obs & Gynae (Turancin Burtaniya)) suna damuwa da haihuwa da kuma haihuwar mace da gabobin da ke da alaƙa. Magungunan haihuwa da maganin haihuwa galibi masana ilimin mata ne ke yin su.
- Pediatrics (AE) ko paediatrics "BE" an sadaukar da ita ga kula da jarirai, yara, da matasa. Kamar magani na ciki, akwai ƙwarewar yara da yawa don takamaiman shekarun, tsarin gabobin, azuzuwan cututtuka, da wuraren bayar da kulawa.
- Magungunan magunguna sune ilimin kimiyyar kiwon lafiya da ke da alaƙa da ganowa, ci gaba, kimantawa, rajista, saka idanu da fannoni na kiwon lafiya na tallace-tallace na magunguna don amfanin marasa lafiya da lafiyar jama'a.
- Magungunan jiki da farfadowa (ko physiatry) suna damuwa da ingantaccen aiki bayan rauni, rashin lafiya, ko cututtukan haihuwa.
- Magungunan Podiatric shine nazarin, ganewar asali, da magani da tiyata na cututtukan ƙafa, idon kafa, ƙananan kafa, cinya da ƙananan baya.
- Magungunan rigakafi shine reshe na magani wanda ke da alaƙa da hana cututtuka.
- Kiwon lafiya na al'umma ko kiwon lafiyar jama'a wani bangare ne na ayyukan kiwon lafiya da ke da alaƙa da barazanar Lafiyar al'umma gaba ɗaya bisa ga nazarin lafiyar jama'ar.
- Psychiatry reshe ne na magani da ke da alaƙa da nazarin bio-psycho-social na etiology, ganewar asali, magani da rigakafin cututtukan fahimta, fahimta, motsin rai da halayyar. Yankunan da suka danganci sun hada da psychotherapy da ilimin halayyar asibiti.
- Magungunan jaraba suna hulɗa da maganin jaraba.
- Magungunan sararin samaniya suna magance matsalolin kiwon lafiya da suka shafi tashi da tafiye-Tafiya ta sararin samaniya.
- injiniya Biomedical wani filin ne da ke hulɗa da aikace-aikacen ka'idodin injiniya ga aikin likita.
- Ilimin likitancin asibiti ya damu da yadda tsarin warkarwa ke hulɗa da marasa lafiya.
- Magungunan kiyayewa suna nazarin dangantakar da ke tsakanin lafiyar mutum da wadanda ba na mutum ba, da yanayin muhalli. Har ila yau an san shi da maganin muhalli, maganin muhallu, ko ilimin ƙasa na likita.
- Magungunan bala'i suna hulɗa da fannoni na kiwon lafiya na shirye-shiryen gaggawa, rage bala'i da gudanarwa.
- Magungunan nutsewa (ko maganin hyperbaric) shine rigakafi da maganin matsalolin da suka shafi nutsewa.
- Magungunan juyin halitta wani hangen nesa ne game da magani wanda aka samo ta hanyar amfani da ka'idar juyin halitta.
- Magungunan likitanci suna hulɗa da tambayoyin kiwon lafiya a cikin mahallin shari'a, kamar ƙaddamar da lokacin da dalilin mutuwa, nau'in makami da aka yi amfani da shi don haifar da rauni, sake fasalin fasalin fuska ta amfani da ragowar matattu (ƙashin kai) don haka taimakawa ganewa.
- Magungunan da suka danganci jinsi suna nazarin bambance-bambance na halitta da na jiki tsakanin maza da mata da kuma yadda hakan ke shafar bambance-mbance a cikin cututtuka.
- Ilimin kimiyyar kiwon lafiya wani yanki ne na baya-bayan nan wanda ke hulɗa da aikace-aikacen kwamfutoci da fasahar bayanai ga magani.
- Hospice da Palliative Medicine wani reshe ne na zamani na maganin asibiti wanda ke hulɗa da ciwo da sauƙaƙe alamomi da goyon bayan motsin rai a cikin marasa lafiya tare da cututtukan da suka fi tsanani ciki har da ciwon daji da gazawar zuciya.
- Magungunan asibiti shine kulawar kiwon lafiya na marasa lafiya a asibiti. Likitocin da suka fi mayar da hankali ga likitan asibiti ana kiransu likitoci a Amurka da Kanada. Ana amfani da kalmar Mafi Girma Likita (MRP) ko likitan da ke halartar sauyawa don bayyana wannan rawar.
- Magungunan laser sun haɗa da amfani da lasers a cikin ganewar asali ko magani na yanayi daban-daban.
- Sauran fannoni da yawa na kimiyyar kiwon lafiya, misali dieteticsAbinci
- Ka'idodin kiwon lafiya suna hulɗa da ka'idojin ɗabi'a da ɗabi'a'u waɗanda ke amfani da dabi'u da hukunce-hukunce ga aikin likita.
- Ilimin ilimin likitanci ya haɗa da ilimin ɗan adam (littattafai, falsafar, ɗabi'a, tarihi da addini), kimiyyar zamantakewa (anthropology, Nazarin al'adu, ilimin halayyar dan adam, ilimin zamantakewa), da zane-zane (littattafan, wasan kwaikwayo, fim, da zane-zanen gani) da aikace-aikacen su ga ilimin likita da aiki.
- Nosokinetics shine kimiyya / batun auna da kuma tsara tsarin kulawa a cikin kiwon lafiya da tsarin kula da jama'a.
- Nosology shine rarraba cututtuka don dalilai daban-daban.
- Magungunan sana'a shine samar da shawarwarin kiwon lafiya ga kungiyoyi da mutane don tabbatar da cewa ana iya cimma mafi girman ka'idojin kiwon lafiya da aminci a wurin aiki kuma ana kiyaye su.
- Gudanar da ciwo (wanda kuma ake kira maganin ciwo, ko algiatry) shine horo na kiwon lafiya wanda ya shafi sauƙaƙe ciwo.
- Pharmacogenomics wani nau'i ne na magani na mutum.
- Magungunan Podiatric shine nazarin, ganewar asali, da kuma maganin likita na cututtukan ƙafa, idon kafa, ƙananan kafa, cinya da ƙananan baya.
- Magungunan jima'i suna damuwa da ganowa, kimantawa da kuma magance duk cututtukan da suka shafi jima'i.
- Magungunan wasanni suna hulɗa da magani da rigakafi da farfado da raunin wasanni / motsa jiki kamar su spasms na tsoka, hawaye na tsoka, raunin da aka yi wa ligaments (hawaye ko fashewa) da kuma gyaran su a cikin 'Yan wasa, mai son da masu sana'a.
- Therapeutics shine filin, wanda aka fi ambaton shi a cikin lokutan tarihi na baya, na Magunguna daban-daban da za a iya amfani da su don magance cututtuka da inganta lafiya.[19]
- Magungunan tafiye-tafiye ko emporiatrics suna magance matsalolin kiwon lafiya na matafiya na kasa da kasa ko matafiya a fadin yanayi daban-daban.
- Magungunan wurare masu zafi suna hulɗa da rigakafi da maganin cututtukan wurare masu zafi. Ana nazarin shi daban a cikin yanayi mai matsakaici inda waɗannan cututtukan ba su da masaniya ga likitoci da bukatun asibiti na gida.
- Kula da gaggawa yana mai da hankali kan isar da ba a tsara shi ba, kulawa a waje da sashen gaggawa na asibiti don raunin da cututtukan da ba su da tsanani don buƙatar kulawa a sashen gaggawar gaggawa. A wasu yankuna an haɗa wannan aikin tare da sashen gaggawa.
- Magungunan dabbobi; Likitocin dabbobi suna amfani da irin wannan dabarun a matsayin likitoci don kula da dabbobi marasa mutane.
- Magungunan hamada sun haɗa da aikin magani a cikin daji, inda ba za a iya samun wuraren kiwon lafiya na al'ada ba.
Ilimin likita da horo sun bambanta a duniya. Yawanci ya haɗa da ilimin shigarwa a makarantar likita ta jami'a, sannan ya biyo bayan lokacin kulawa ko horo, ko zama. Wannan za a iya biye da horo na sana'a na digiri. An yi amfani da hanyoyi daban-daban na koyarwa a cikin ilimin likita, har yanzu kanta tana mai da hankali ga bincike mai aiki. A Kanada da Amurka, digiri na Doctor of Medicine, sau da yawa an taƙaita MD, ko digiri na Doctor na Osteopathic Medicine, sau le yawa an taƙita shi a matsayin DO kuma na musamman ga Amurka, dole ne a kammala shi kuma a isar da shi daga sanannen jami'a.
Tun da ilimi, dabaru, da fasahar kiwon lafiya suna ci gaba da bunkasa cikin sauri, hukumomin da yawa suna buƙatar ci gaba da ilimin likita. Likitocin kiwon lafiya suna inganta iliminsu ta hanyoyi daban-daban, gami da mujallu na kiwon lafiya, tarurruka, da shirye-shiryen kan layi. Za'a iya bincika bayanan bayanai na manufofi da ke rufe ilimin likita, kamar yadda al'ummomin ƙasa a duk faɗin Amurka suka ba da shawarar, a http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/ An adana shi .[20]
A mafi yawan ƙasashe, abin da ake buƙata ne na doka don likitan likita ya sami lasisi ko rajista. Gabaɗaya, wannan ya haɗa da digiri na likita daga jami'a da kuma izini daga kwamitin likita ko ƙungiyar ƙasa, wanda zai iya tambayar mai nema ya wuce jarrabawa. Wannan yana ƙuntata ikon shari'a na aikin likita ga likitocin da aka horar da su kuma sun cancanci ka'idojin ƙasa. Har ila yau an yi niyya ne a matsayin tabbaci ga marasa lafiya kuma a matsayin kariya daga Masu yaudara waɗanda ke yin maganin da bai dace ba don amfanin kansu. Duk da yake dokoki gabaɗaya suna buƙatar horar da likitocin likita a cikin "tabbaci", Yammacin, ko Magungunan Hippocrates, ba a yi niyyar hana nau'ikan kiwon lafiya daban-daban ba.
A cikin Tarayyar Turai, ana tsara aikin likita. An ce ana tsara sana'a lokacin da samun dama da motsa jiki ke ƙarƙashin mallakar takamaiman ƙwarewar ƙwararru. Bayanan ayyukan da aka tsara ya ƙunshi jerin ayyukan da aka sarrafa don likitan likita a cikin kasashe membobin EU, ƙasashen EEA da Switzerland. Wannan jerin an rufe shi da Dokar 2005/36/EC.
Likitocin da ba su da hankali ko kuma da gangan suna da lahani a kula da marasa lafiya na iya fuskantar tuhumar rashin aikin likita kuma suna ƙarƙashin takunkumin farar hula, masu laifi, ko ƙwararru.
Ka'idodin kiwon lafiya
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Ka'idodin kiwon lafiya tsarin ka'idojin ɗabi'a ne waɗanda ke amfani da dabi'u da hukunce-hukunce ga aikin magani. A matsayin horo na ilimi, ka'idojin kiwon lafiya sun haɗa da aikace-aikacensa a cikin saitunan asibiti da kuma aiki a kan tarihinsa, falsafar, tauhidin, da ilimin zamantakewa. Shida daga cikin dabi'un da aka saba amfani da su ga tattaunawar ka'idojin kiwon lafiya sune:
- cin gashin kai - mai haƙuri yana da 'yancin ƙin ko zaɓar maganin su. (Latin: Voluntas aegroti suprema lex.)
- alheri - ya kamata mai aiki ya yi aiki don amfanin mai haƙuri. (Latin: Salus aegroti suprema lex.)
- adalci - ya shafi rarraba albarkatun kiwon lafiya, da kuma yanke shawara game da wanda ke samun irin magani (hankali da daidaito).
- non-maleficence - "na farko, ba ku cutar da" (Latin: primum non-nocere).
- girmamawa ga mutane - mai haƙuri (da mutumin da ke kula da mai haƙuri) suna da 'yancin a bi da shi da mutunci.
- gaskiya da gaskiya - manufar yardar da aka sani ta karu da muhimmanci tun bayan abubuwan da suka faru na Tarihin Dokta na gwajin Nuremberg, Gwajin syphilis na Tuskegee, da sauransu.
Darajoji irin su ba su ba da amsoshi game da yadda za a magance wani yanayi ba, amma suna ba da tsari mai amfani don fahimtar rikice-rikice. Lokacin da dabi'un ɗabi'a ke rikici, sakamakon na iya zama Matsalar ta ɗabi'u ko rikici. Wani lokaci, babu mafita mai kyau ga matsala a cikin ka'idojin kiwon lafiya, kuma a wasu lokuta, dabi'un al'ummar kiwon lafiya (watau, asibiti da ma'aikatanta) suna rikici da dabi'un kowane mai haƙuri, iyali, ko manyan al'ummomin da ba na likita ba. Har ila yau, rikice-rikice na iya tasowa tsakanin masu ba da kiwon lafiya, ko tsakanin dangin. Misali, wasu suna jayayya cewa ka'idodin cin gashin kansu da sadaka sun yi karo da juna lokacin da marasa lafiya suka ƙi ƙarin jini, suna la'akari da su don ceton rai; kuma ba a jaddada faɗar gaskiya sosai ba kafin zamanin HIV.
Tarihi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Duniyar Dā
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Magungunan prehistoric sun haɗa da tsire-tsire (herbalism), sassan dabbobi, da ma'adanai. A lokuta da yawa ana amfani da waɗannan kayan a matsayin kayan sihiri ta firistoci, shamans, ko mazajen magani. Sanannun tsarin ruhaniya sun haɗa da animism (ra'ayin abubuwa marasa rai da ke da ruhohi), sihiri (kira ga alloli ko tarayya tare da ruhohin kakanni); shamanism (bayar da mutum mai iko mai ban mamaki); da duba (da sihiri samun gaskiya). Yankin ilimin ɗan adam na kiwon lafiya yana nazarin hanyoyin da al'adu da al'umma ke tsarawa ko kuma tasirin batutuwan kiwon lafiya, kiwon lafiya da batutuwan da suka shafi.
An samo rubutun kiwon lafiya na farko da aka sani a duniya a tsohuwar birnin Ebla na Siriya kuma sun koma 2500 KZ. Sauran rubuce-rubuce na farko game da magani an gano su daga maganin Masar na dā, maganin Babila, maganin Ayurvedic (a cikin Yankin Indiya), maganin gargajiya na kasar Sin (Alternative medicine) wanda ya riga ya zama maganin gargajiya na gargajiya na kasar Sinanci na zamani), da kuma maganin Girka na dā da maganin Roman.
A Misira, Imhotep (3rd millennium KZ) shine likita na farko a tarihi da aka sani da suna. Tsohon Rubutun likitancin Masar shine Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus daga kusan 2000 KZ, wanda ke bayyana cututtukan mata. Edwin Smith Papyrus wanda ya samo asali ne daga 1600 KZ aiki ne na farko kan tiyata, yayin da Ebers Papyrus wanda aka samo asali daga 1500 KZ yayi kama da littafi kan magani.
A kasar Sin, shaidar archaeological na magani a kasar Sin ta samo asali ne daga Daular Shang ta Bronze Age, bisa ga tsaba don herbalism da kayan aikin da ake zaton an yi amfani da su don tiyata.[21] Huangdi Neijing, kakan likitancin kasar Sin, rubutu ne na kiwon lafiya wanda aka rubuta tun daga ƙarni na 2 KZ kuma aka tattara shi a ƙarni na 3.
A Indiya, likitan tiyata Sushruta ya bayyana ayyukan tiyata da yawa, gami da nau'ikan tiyata ta filastik na farko.[22] [maɓuɓɓugar da ba a amince da ita ba?] [ana buƙatar ƙa'ida]Rubuce-rubucen da aka keɓe na asibitoci masu sadaukarwa sun fito ne daga Mihintale a Sri Lanka inda aka sami shaidar wuraren kula da magani ga marasa lafiya.[23][24][ana buƙatar hujja]
A Girka, likitan Girka na dā Hippocrates, "mahaifin magani na zamani", [25] ya kafa tushe don hanyar da ta dace da magani. Hippocrates ya gabatar da rantsuwar Hippocratic ga likitoci, wanda har yanzu yana da mahimmanci kuma ana amfani da shi a yau, kuma shine na farko da ya rarraba cututtuka kamar masu tsanani, masu tsanani, da annoba, da kuma amfani da kalmomi kamar, "ƙuntata, sake dawowa, ƙuduri, rikici, paroxysm, ƙaruwa, da warkewa". Likitan Girka Galen ya kasance daya daga cikin manyan likitocin tiyata na duniya ta dā kuma ya yi aiki mai yawa, gami da tiyata na kwakwalwa da ido. Bayan faduwar Daular Romawa ta Yamma da Farkon Zamanin Tsakiya, al'adar Girka ta magani ta shiga raguwa a Yammacin Turai, kodayake ta ci gaba ba tare da katsewa ba a Daular Roman ta Gabas (Byzantine).
Manazarta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ Saunders, John (June 2000). "The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science". Med Humanit. 26 (1): 18–22. doi:10.1136/mh.26.1.18. ISSN 1468-215X. PMC 1071282. PMID 12484313. S2CID 73306806.
- ↑ "Dictionary, medicine". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 December 2013.
- ↑ El Dib RP, Atallah AN, Andriolo RB (August 2007). "Mapping the Cochrane evidence for decision making in health care". Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice. 13 (4): 689–692. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2753.2007.00886.x. PMID 17683315.
- ↑ Addison K, Braden JH, Cupp JE, Emmert D, Hall LA, Hall T, Hess B, Kohn D, Kruse MT, McLendon K, McQueary J, Musa D, Olenik KL, Quinsey CA, Reynolds R, Servais C, Watters A, Wiedemann LA, Wilkins M, Wills M, Vogt NE (September 2005). "Update: guidelines for defining the legal health record for-disclosure purposes". Journal of AHIMA. 76 (8): 64A–64G. PMID 16245584. Archived from the original on 9 March 2008.
- ↑ Nordqvist, Christian (26 August 2009). "What Are Symptoms? What Are Signs?". Medical News Today. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014.
- ↑ "Assessing patients effectively: Here's how to do the basic four techniques". Nursing2014. 8 (2): 6. 2006. doi:10.1097/00152193-200611002-00005.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 "Clinical examination". The Free Dictionary. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2021. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>
tag; name "the free dictionary" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ Grembowski DE; Diehr P; Novak LC; Roussel AE; Martin DP; Patrick DL; Williams B; Ulrich CM (August 2000). "Measuring the "managedness" and covered benefits of health plans". Health Services Research. 35 (3): 707–734. PMC 1089144. PMID 10966092.
- ↑ "Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations". Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science. 14 January 2004. Archived from the original on 19 October 2009.
- ↑ Battista, John R.; McCabe, Justine (June 4, 1999). "The Case For Single Payer, Universal Health Care for the United States". Cthealth.server101.com. Archived from the original on 23 April 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2009.
- ↑ Sipkoff, Martin (January 2004). "Transparency called key to uniting cost control, quality improvement". Managed Care. 13 (1): 38–42. PMID 14763279. Archived from the original on 17 February 2004. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
- ↑ "Primary, Secondary and Tertiary HealthCare – Arthapedia". www.arthapedia.in. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
- ↑ "Types of health care providers: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
- ↑ "Secondary Health Care". International Medical Corps (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
- ↑ Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B (April 2013). "Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 91 (4): 277–282. doi:10.2471/BLT.12.110015 (inactive 13 November 2024). PMC 3629451. PMID 23599551.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of Nuwamba, 2024 (link)
- ↑ Chou YJ, Yip WC, Lee CH, Huang N, Sun YP, Chang HJ (September 2003). "Impact of separating drug prescribing and dispensing on provider behaviour: Taiwan's experience". Health Policy and Planning. 18 (3): 316–329. doi:10.1093/heapol/czg038. PMID 12917273.
- ↑ "What are the surgical specialties?". American College of Surgeons (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
- ↑ "The Royal Australasian College of Physicians: What are Physicians?". Royal Australasian College of Physicians. Archived from the original on 6 March 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2008.
- ↑ "therapeutics (medicine)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 18 December 2007. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
- ↑ Brooks S, Biala N, Arbor S (March 2018). "A searchable database of medical education objectives – creating a comparable gold standard". BMC Medical Education. 18 (1): 31. doi:10.1186/s12909-018-1136-z. PMC 5833091. PMID 29499684.
- ↑ Hong, Francis (2004). "History of Medicine in China" (PDF). McGill Journal of Medicine. 8 (1): 7984. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2013.
- ↑ Rana RE, Arora BS (2002). "History of plastic surgery in India". Journal of Postgraduate Medicine. 48 (1): 76–78. PMID 12082339.
- ↑ Aluvihare A (November 1993). "Rohal Kramaya Lovata Dhayadha Kale Sri Lankikayo". Vidhusara Science Magazine: 5.
- ↑ "Resource mobilization in Sri Lanka's health sector" (PDF). Harvard School of Public Health & Health Policy Programme, Institute of Policy Studies. 9 February 1997. p. 19. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2001. Retrieved 16 July 2009.
- ↑ Grammaticos PC, Diamantis A (2008). "Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus". Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 11 (1): 2–4. PMID 18392218.
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